Adolescence: Change and Continuity

Sexuality

• Sexual Identity
• Gay Men, Lesbians, and Bisexuals: Some Facts
• Alternative Lifestyles: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youth
• Supportive Environments: Allowing for Transition
• Homosexual Love in Today's Society
• Teen Pregnancy
• Sexual Transmitted Diseases
• Common STD's
• Facts About Kids, Sex, and STD's
• Coping with the "Other" Incurable STDs
• Sex Education for Adolescents
• The Lack Of Contraceptive Information In Sexual Education Programs
• Sexual Crimes Against Adolescents
• To Read More . . .
• Additional Links

The Mental Change

Entering adolescence can be described in a sentence - simultaneous emotions of delight, energy, excitement, anticipation, insecurity, irritability, impulsiveness, moodiness, supersensitive, imaginative, secretive...truly a unique time in the child's development. To attempt to understand the often erratic behavior of the early adolescent, I'll begin by explaining a bit about the major shift in mental development that takes place. Up until now the child has been operating on a level of thinking which is guided by factual information; the way they think about their world is egocentric as it is based only on what is known or seen at that time. Suddenly there is a dramatic shift to what is called a formal operational level of thinking about what might be possible and can now decide on their own reality. This more mature mind can now look at the logical side of relationships and experience empathy for others. They have entered an age of identity crisis's, new issues about sexuality, extensive education on the topic of sex, peer pressures toward drugs and alcohol, and how to make it through adolescence safely. It is a combination of these things that causes the confusion, the chaos, and the sensitivity that they experience. The following topics covered in this section of the website will attempt to educate on issues related to sexuality, as well as offer intervention and support for all involved.

The Adolescent's View on Sexuality

However desperate the adolescent is to belong to a particular age group, it is extremely important to stress the special and unique qualities of the child to guide them into their own sexual identity, which is a constant struggle for them (Schave and Schave,1989).This is a time for a great need of external supports, but prepare for the child to look toward his peers to get him through this difficult adjustment period. Often depending on how the parents have communicated the subject of sex with the child, sexuality for the adolescent is a very private matter. Common behaviors and feelings may be:

• feelings of guilt, hopes and fears, unsure self esteem, inner conflicts involving acceptance or rejection by others.
• for the parents it is important to remember to talk about sexuality as a comfortable subject; talking openly from the beginning will help the child feel better about the topic and aide in their self confidence (Sorensen, 1973).

One of the biggest conflicts among teenagers and elders is the sudden need for the child to have self identity and personal freedom, or room to grow up. Often it will come so fast that parents are reluctant to let go; they have trouble seeing their child as having developed into a young adult and suddenly demanding personal space. The young adolescent will carefully note every physical change in their body; natural instinct is to experiment. Common conflicts among adolescent's and their parents are:

• Disagreements about sexual attitudes and behaviors often influence how well adolescents and parents in some families get along. Most have little communication with their parents about sex and feel they've been given little to no information about sex from them. By doing this, parents are risking their children's well being and good ethical development; there are many benefits to a freer expression of love within the home (Sorensen,1973).
• Much of adolescent's sexual identity will come straight from their peer group. Some beneficial suggestions for a parent are to monitor peer groups carefully (get to know their parents), be active in your teens life, activities, and schoolwork, and always stress good communication while guiding them toward a healthy ethical environment.

This is simply a glimpse of the extensive topic of adolescent sexuality; if interested in further readings look to the list below.

• Adams, Gullotta, & Montemayor. (1992). Adolescent Identity Formation. Newbury park, Ca.:
• Sage Publishers Inc
• Dragastin & Elder. (1975). Adolescence in the Life Cycle; Psychological Change and Social Context. Washington D.C. : Hemisphere Publishing Company.
• Schave & Schave. (1989). Early Adolescence and the Search for Self; a developmental perspective. New York, N.Y.: Praegar Publishers.
• Sorensen, Robert C. (1973). Adolescent Sexuality in Contemporary America. New York, N.Y. The World Publishing Company.

What is homosexuality?

The term homosexuality had not come about until the 1860's. Homosexuality is the sexual desire for others of one's own sex. Homosexuality is often referred to as the capacity to feel love and sexual satisfaction with someone of the same gender(Diversity Works, 1990). How do you define who is and is not a homosexual? People who are heterosexual sometimes might fantasize about someone of the same sex, this is called homosexual feelings. A wife that has a lesbian affair, or a college students who is experimenting with his sexuality, is experiencing homosexual behavior. Yet another person born as a male who thinks and acts like a female is in touch with his gender identification.

What is the cause of homosexuality?

This is a dispute that has been going on since homosexuality came about. There are three theories that are
presented to explain homosexuality; they are: Biological/genetic, psychological, and behavioral. All the above
theories have supporting evidence, however scientists lean towards genetic factors. Most social scientists do not support the idea that people simply decide to become gay because of a fad, to rebel, or because of being
misinformed in sex education class (Blumenfeld, 1995).

Is the hiv/aids virus a homosexual disease?

The HIV/AIDS virus has brought many questions to the homosexual community. AIDS is a virus that suppresses the immune system. This allows the body to become susceptible to other viruses, infections, and diseases that can cause one to become very sick, or die. There is a common misconception of all gay men and bisexuals engaging in promiscuous sexual behavior. This is not true, while some do decide to have many partners, a majority of homosexuals prefer meaningful relationships. Anyone who engages in unprotected sex or shares an intravenous drug needle is at risk of contracting the AIDS virus. AIDS started out as a heterosexual disease in West Central Africa, however when it spread to the U.S. approximately three-quarters of all AIDS cases were homosexual or bisexual men. Thus, it was nicknamed the "gay or homosexual disease" (Blumenfeld, & Raymond, 1993). Today, AIDS does not discriminate against anyone.

Do homosexuals establish stable relationships?

According to Riedmann (1995), 75 percent of lesbians and 50 percent of gay men are in stable, coupled
relationships at any given time. One common misconception is that gay men and lesbians do not commit to
long-term relationships. However, a study on homosexuality concludes that many homosexual men and women lead stable lives without frenetic sexual activity and that some are considerably happier and better adjusted then heterosexuals as a whole (Blumenfeld, & Raymond, 1993). Long-lasting relationships are more difficult to establish among homosexuals because of the pressure and stress society places on these relationships.

Can homosexuals become parents?

According to Blumenfeld and Raymond (1993), homosexuality is a threat to the traditional family values and the constitutional make-up of the family. Homosexual partners make long-term commitment, because many states do not allow homosexuals to get married. Many couples are not even recognized by the state as a union. Homosexual couples have children through heterosexual marriages or relationships in the past, adoption, or artificial insemination (Riedmann, 1995).

Will homosexual parents make their children homosexual?

A common misconception of homosexuals is that they try to recruit children. In fact, children growing up in
homosexual homes are more well adjusted in life and with their sexuality. Children in homosexual homes are not more likely to become homosexual. Most gay men and lesbians have heterosexual parents, and they are likely to have heterosexual children (Diversity Works, 1990).

References
Blumenfeld, W. (1995). "Gay/Straight" Alliances. High School Journal, 77, 113-121.

Blumenfeld, W., & Raymond, D. (1993). Looking at Gay and Lesbian Life. (pp 48-318). Boston, Mass: BeaconPress.

Riedmann, A. (1995). Lesbian and gay male families. Primis, 66-83.

Straight Talk About Homosexuality, [pamphlet], Diversity Works, Inc. 1990.

Recommended Readings:

I recommend the pamphlets that the Penn State GLBA gives out to interested readers. Straight Talk About
Homosexuality,[pamphlet], Diversity Works, Inc. 1990.

In General:

• 10% of the adolescent community is believed to be gay
• Gay males experience first same sex activity at age 15 & identify as gay at 14
• Lesbians experience their first same sex activity at age 20 and identify as gay within three years (Dempsy, 1994)
• Onset of homosexual arousal, homosexual behavior erotic imagery, and homosexual romantic attachment occurs during adolescence (Anderson, 1994)

Myths And Stereotypes

Some stereotypes of homosexual people from Dempsey include:

• can't form loving relationships
• sexually promiscuous
• unhappy
• prey on and seduce children
• all gay males are effeminate and all lesbians are masculine

What Does The Typical Gay, Lesbian. Or Bisexual Youth Experience?

1. Problems in school -- fear rejection and isolation

2. Substance abuse

3. Run away from home

4. Violence and harassment (Katchadourian, 1990)

5. High risk for suicide -- typically lose friends & family, negative stigma

6. Risk for HIV infection -- education typically directed toward heterosexual relationships (Morrow, 1993)

Despite the many problems gay teens can face, they have few people to turn to for help.

Gay Adolescents Lack Support

These adolescents may lack support systems from the gay community, peers and parents. The gay community fears of being accused of sexual exploitation or abuse and "promoting" homosexuality (Dempsey, 1994). Traditional social structures usually fail to provide knowledge of homosexual lifestyle. Gay teens feel pressure from peers to conform to heterosexual norms. They also witness name-calling, jokes, and other negative comments toward homosexuals. Since most parents are heterosexual, they are not role models, nor do they teach about being gay. (Morrow, 1993)

In our society, homosexual behavior among adolescents is quite common. For many, it is notexperimental activity or a phase in development, but an expression of their lifestyle. For more information and support contact: Federation of Parents & Friends of Lesbians & Gays (P-Flag) at P.O. 28009, Washington, D.C. 28009.

Although heterosexual teens and homosexual teens do not experience the same problems in dealing with their sexual identity, the former are at risks for other difficulties. One potential problem is teen pregnancy.
 

The need to provide a supportive environment for gay/ lesbian and bisexual (g/l/b) adolescents is paramount to the wellness and at times, survival of these adolescents. Homosexuality is a controversial subject. Many of the established cultural institutions in our society maintain a stance of non-acceptance toward it, while others have merely adopted a position of tolerance. These institutions base their attitudes on traditional beliefs and religious interpretations that portray the notion of homosexuality as unnatural. These concepts then identify individuals who are gay/lesbian and bisexual as mentally ill, perverted and a threat to the wholesome goodness of our society. Many have not educated themselves or helped to create an awareness in their constituents that allows for an objective evaluation of the situation.

Is there a need for safe environments?

These attitudes create an environment of fear, uncertainty and distrust in those adolescents who have recognized the emotional, intellectual and physical attractions they feel to people of the same gender. The following statistics provide support for this:

• G/l/b adolescents are 30% more likely to attempt suicide than their "straight" peers.
• 25% of all homeless youths are gay/lesbian or bisexual. (Hetrick-Martin Institute, 1992)
• 1 in 4 g/l/b youths are forced to leave home because of their orientation.
• One-half of g/l/b youths reported being rejected by their parents for being gay. (Dept. Of Health and Human Services, 1989)

For many, the "cause" of homosexuality remains a key issue in acceptance. There is no predominant scientific theory that provides a reason for homosexuality. There has, however, been a great deal of research that indicates genetic and hormonal factors in individuals that establish a predisposition to gay/lesbian or bisexual orientation. What we may be safe to say, is that an individual does not make a choice to be gay but rather a choice to accept this fact in his/her life.

Parents, Family, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (P-FLAG), a national support network, identifies a general pattern of resolution in the process of "coming out" in a family structure. These processes are dynamic and involve the entire family unit.

• Shock
• Denial
• Guilt: parents blaming themselves for their child's homosexuality
• Feelings Expressed: a verbal expression often characterized by anger, sadness and hurt
• Personal Decision Making: an attempt to objectively evaluate the situation and possible options related to acceptance or non-acceptance
• True Acceptance (P-FLAG as quoted by Blumenfeld &Lindop)

Resources

Support groups and resources for parents, families and adolescents provide avenues for understanding and possible acceptance. These resources are available in your communities. Because a child cannot always turn to the community for support, a safe home environment is imperative.
 

Homosexual Unions in Public

Homosexual love, against the norm, is not widely accepted in today's society. As a result, most homosexuals
suppress their sexual feelings and romantic love for the same sex partner. Public affection for homosexuals in very difficult. First, homosexuals do not have many choices of where they can go on a date, without being maligned by the general public. Second, homosexual couples can not legally marry. However, some localities have begun to extend the marriage of "family" to encompass same sex unions (Riedmann, 1996).

Homosexual Relationships

Although some gay male and lesbian unions are commitments "for life" and have lasted 35 years of more, on
average relationships for both gay males and lesbians last two or three years. A pattern of serial monogamy exists, exceptions of permanence (Riedmann, 1996).

Opposition to Homosexuals
The opposition of homosexuality usually argues that homosexuality is immoral for the following reasons:

1. It is contrary to the procreative purpose of sexual intercourse.

2. It is an attack on the basic unit of society- the family.

3. It is deficient in the potential for complementary interaction between partners.

4. It is deliberate pursuit of sexual pleasure in the absence of a stable. (Brooke, 1993).

Support to Homosexuals

The support for homosexuality is that it is not a crime, legally. In regards to the above, homosexual couples can adopt and form a loving family. It is not an attack at the basic unit of family, instead the general public is attacking the homosexuality unit of family. Finally, if two people of the same sex are happy together who are we to judge that homosexuality is right or wrong.

REFERENCES
Brooke, Stephanie L. (1993). The Morality of Homosexuality. The Haworth Press, Inc.

Geest, Hans (1993). Homosexuality and Marriage. The Haworth Press, Inc.

Riedmann, Agnes (1996). Lesbian and Gay Male Families. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Webster, Merriam (1993). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary: The Tenth Edition.

I would recommend The Morality of Homosexuality and Homosexuality and Marriage to non-HDFS majors who want to find out more about this topic.

Nearly one million teenagers become pregnant each year in the United States; approximately thirty-three percent have an abortion, 14% miscarry, and 52% carry to term (Maynard, 1996). Of those who carry to term, 72% do so out of wedlock (Maynard). The U.S. has the highest teenage pregnancy rate among all industrialized nations; two times Great Britain, and 15 times Japan (Maynard). However, the rate of sexual activity of teens in the U.S. is not notably higher than the rate in other countries (Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989). According to the Alan Guttmacher Institute, the unusually high teen pregnancy rate in the U.S. is mainly due to teens receiving mixed messages about contraception and also due to the ineffective delivery of birth control services to the teenage population (Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg).

Why are so many U.S. teenagers becoming pregnant?

Over the last century, the age of menarche has decreased among teenage girls to 12.5 years, whereas the age of marriage has increased to the mid 20's, resulting in a 10 to 15 year gap between menarche and marriage (Warren, 1992). At the same time, the average teenager watches about 9000 scenes of sexual activity or innuendo per year (Warren). The combination of these two factors contributes to the high rate of premarital sex among teens and young adults (Warren). One of the main reasons why so many of these teenagers are becoming pregnant is because half of all teens do not use any type of birth control the first time they have sex (Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989).

Research has discovered many common characteristics among pregnant teens. These include having little access to free confidential family planning, little communication with parents, lack of knowledge of parents' contraceptive experiences, low educational achievement and aspirations, low self-esteem, and not knowing when, in the menstrual cycle, a woman is most likely to get pregnant (Brooks-Gunn & Furstenberg, 1989).

What happens to teens who become pregnant and their children?

Pregnant teenagers have many obstacles ahead of them. For example, seven out of 10 girls who become pregnant drop out of high school and subsequently are unable to successfully support themselves and their children (Maynard, 1996). After birth, it becomes even more difficult to get an education that will help them find a good job. Day care is expensive and doing homework with a child present is difficult. Without good support from family and friends, it is nearly impossible to complete school. The result of these obstacles is a high dependency on welfare; fifty percent higher than women who delay childbearing (Maynard). In addition, children of teenage parents are more likely to have health and cognitive disadvantages and to be neglected or abused (Maynard). Furthermore, daughters of teenage mothers are more likely to be pregnant as teens, and sons are more likely to end up in prison than children of later child bearers (Maynard).

What can be done?

One way to alleviate this problem is through prevention. Education in the schools has been one option. Unfortunately, U.S. sex education programs only cover limited topics in an extremely limited amount of time and therefore have not decreased the likelihood of pregnancy (Barth, Fetro, Leland, Volkan, 1992; Warren, 1992). However, in countries such as Sweden, England, and France, where sex education is required or encouraged in the schools, birth control attitudes and behavior have been positively affected by an ongoing program (Warren). Therefore, sex education programs in the schools have the potential for decreasing teen pregnancy.

Research points towards family communication as a major key to prevention. Children prefer to receive sexuality education from their parents over any other source (Handelsman, Cabral, & Weisfeld 1987; White & DeBlassie, 1992). In addition, studies have found that when sex education is provided by parents, adolescents have a later onset of first intercourse and use birth control more often (Huston, Martin, & Foulds, 1990). Unfortunately, only 10% of U.S. families have any kind of ongoing sexuality discussion (Warren, 1992).

In addition to prevention, programs need to be developed that will help pregnant teens obtain an education, secure good jobs, and learn parenting skills. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that each pregnant or parenting teen may not fit into the categories described above. If these individuals are stereotyped as poor parents and welfare abusers, they will not feel that they can be good parents who can support themselves. One important step that we can all take is to offer support and encouragement toward those who have already become pregnant.

Pregnancy is a major concern among those teenagers who are sexually active. Unfortunately, pregnancy is not the only thing that sexually active teens need to worry about.
 

Further Reading

• Baldwin, S. E. & Baranoski, M. V. (1990). Family interactions and sex education in the home. Adolescence, 25(99), 573-582.
• Burke, P. J. & Liston, W. J. (1994). Adolescent mothers' perceptions of social support and the impact of parenting on their lives. Pediatric Nursing, 20(6), 593-599.
• Camp, B. W., Holman, S., & Ridgway, E. (1993). The relationship between social support and stress in adolescent mothers. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14(6), 369-374.
• Dickinson, N. S. & Cudaback, D. J. (1992). Parent education for adolescent mothers. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 12(1), 32-36.
• Haskett, M. E., Johnson, C. A., & Miller, J. W. (1994). Individual differences in risk of child abuse by adolescent mothers: Assessment in the perinatal period. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 35(3), 461-476.
• Shapiro, C. H. (1989). Networking with rural adolescents and their parents to promote communication about sexual issues. Special Issue: Adolescent sexuality: new challenges for social work. Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality, 8(1), 143-154.

Sexually transmitted diseases are a major health concern for today's adolescents. STD is a term used to describe any disease contracted through sexual contact (Crowe, 1992). You can contract an STD through oral, anal, or genital sex with an infected partner. Every year, more than 12 million Americans become infected with an STD (Crowe, 1992). Of these 12 million, the number of STD cases among adolescents has increased dramatically due to biological, behavioral, and psychological factors (D'Angelo & DiClemente, 1996). AIDS is another major concern for youths because a sexually transmitted infection (HIV) can result in a fatal illness (AIDS) . By the end of 1993, the number of reported AIDS cases was 1528 for individuals aged 10-19 (D'Angelo & DiClemente, 1996).

Some Common STDs and Symptoms
CHLAMYDIA	Men experience burning on urination and discharge from the penis. Women often have no symptoms (4 out of 5) until Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. It is treatable and curable with antibiotics.
HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS INFECTION (GENITAL WARTS)	Warts appear as painless growths around the genitals in men and women. People who are infected but do not have symptoms can still transmit the virus. Treatable and curable with cyrotherapy, laser, or chemical treatment.
GONORRHEA:	Men experience burning on urination and discharge from penis, some times sore throat or diarrhea. Women often experience no symptoms until Pelvic Inflammatory Disease begins. Similar to chlamydia. Treatable and curable with antibiotics.
HEPATITIS B:	Fatigue, nausea, and jaundice with dark urine. Some people experience no symptoms or only mild ones. Treatable but not curable. It is completely preventable by a hepatitis b vaccine.
HIV/AIDS	People infected with HIV may show no symptoms for many years but are still able to transmit the infection. Medications are available to possibly slow down the course of HIV infection and prevent many complications, but there is no cure and AIDS is fatal (Crowe, 1992).

Medically Effective Methods of Preventing STDs

• Latex condoms used during vaginal, anal, and oral intercourse.
• New female condom-especially useful for females whose partner can't or won't use a condom.
• Vaginal spermicides-preferably used with a diaphragm to provide more protection.
• Diaphragms- most effective when used with spermicides.
• Barrier methods for oral sex have not been scientifically proven to be effective, but may lower the risk of contracting an STD (Crowe, 1992).

• Earlier initiation of sex: The earlier an adolescent initiates sex, the longer the interval in adolescence during which he/she can be exposed to more partners.
• Biological vulnerability: Adolescents, especially females, are more likely to contract a STD because they are not fully developed. Cases of reportable STDs are more prevalent in female adolescents than males.
• Improper use of contraceptives.
• Having unprotected sex.
• Having sexual intercourse while under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol (D'Angelo & DiClemente, 1996).

For More Information, Contact:

• Local Public Health Department (Clinic)
• Local Planned Parenthood
• University Health Center

Unfortunately, the term STD (sexually transmitted disease) has become a household description for many varieties of infections that plague society. A STD can only be transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person usually through oral, anal, or vaginal sex. Some diseases have also been passed through IV drug use. 1 in every 4 persons is said to contract a STD in their lifetime (Gross), and "globally, an estimated 333 million new cases of (bacterial) STDs …occur each year. Viral STDs …are estimated to be in the billions (Dallabetta)." Not only are adults at risk for STD infection, but STD infection in adolescents is on the rise: "6 youth between the ages of 15 and 24 are infected with HIV every minute (AIDAtlanta)."

In order for us to better serve the global population, it is necessary to understand the common STDs and their effects on our lives.
 

Name  Of  Disease	Classification: Viral,  Bacterial,  Or Other  STD	Description	Transmission	Symptoms	Medicines/  Treatments/  Cures	Long-Term  Effects
Pubic Lice  <Crabs>	Other  <bug,  curable>	Microscopic crab imbeds itself at root of a hair in a warm, moist area of your body and lays eggs which hatch in 7-9 days (infestation)	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; sharing bedding, clothing, towels, razors, or even toilets	Intense  itching	Kwell or Lindane lotions/shampoos; also may be necessary to wash all bedding and clothing in hot water with detergent	No serious long term effects; possibly continuous itching and massive infestation if not treated
Chlamydia	Bacterial  <curable>	Top bacterial STD; chlamydia trachomatis is one organism known to cause the infection in men’s and women’s genitals	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; to baby through vaginal canal	7-21 days after contact: ~ for women: bleeding between periods and after intercourse, painful urination, and inflammation of cervix ~ for men: painful testicles and urination, discharge from penis ~ for baby: eye infection or pneumonia	Tetracycline or Erythromycin	~ for women: PID (pelvic inflammatory disease), Salpingitis, possible infertility ~ for men: urethral damage, Epididymitis, Proctitis, Reiter’s Syndrome ~ for babies: blindness
Gonorrhea	Bacterial  <curable>	Oldest STD; caused by bacterium called gonococcus	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; also to babies through birth canal	1-14 days after contact ~ for women: yellow-green cervical discharge, genital irritation, painful urination ~ for men: yellow-green discharge with odor, swollen genitals, painful/pussy/ bloody urination ~ for baby: eye infection	Penicillin or Ampicillin/ Probenecid combo orally; also Tetracycline or Erythromycin	~ for women: Salpingitis, PID, arthritis (if enters blood stream), sterility ~ for men: arthritis, sterility ~ for babies: blindness
Syphilis	Bacterial  <curable>	Caused by a spirochete, or spiral shaped bacterium	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; touching infected sore with an open cut; to baby through placenta or birth canal	~ Primary Stage: 9-90 days after contact, single rigid chancre will appear at site of infection, will disappear in 2-6 wks. ~ Secondary Stage: 6 wks. later, red rash on torso, hands & feet, nausea, joint/ muscle/bone pain, fever, resolved in 2-6 wks. ~ Latent Stage: asymptomatic period of 10-20 years ~ Tertiary Stage: evident permanent organ and nervous system damage (irreversible)	Penicillin or  Tetracycline	Curable at any stage, but permanent damage done in tertiary stage is irreversible; also causes dementia and leads to death
Genital  Herpes	Viral  <not curable>	Simplex I: oral strain (fever blisters) Simplex II: genital strain Both strains may be transmitted to either mouth or genitals, & vice versa	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; also to baby through birth canal	1-many weeks after contact, small painful clusters of bumps/blisters that burst and release pus; outbreaks occur on average 4 times/yr. in 7-14 day cycles, usually when most stressed; accompanied by flu symptoms, painful intercourse, and itching genitals	Acyclovir works to reduce number and frequency of outbreaks and recurring symptoms; also, C-section for babies at risk	~ for women: cervical cancer ~ for babies: brain damage, possible death
Hepatitis B  <serum hepatitis>	Viral  <not curable>	Affects the liver’s ability to filter out toxins in the blood	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; IV drug use	60-180 days after contact: skin eruptions, fatigue, appetite loss, nausea, vomiting, headache, fever, joint & abdominal pain, jaundice	Treatments aimed at relieving specific symptoms; vaccine in a series of 3 shots	Liver disease and in rare cases death
Genital Warts	Viral  <not curable>	Most common viral STD; caused by organism called HPV (Human Papilloma Virus)	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; passed whether visible or microscopic; also to baby through birth canal	1-6 months after contact: cauliflower-like warts begin to grow microscopically on genitals, and increase to undetermined proportions if not treated	Physical, chemical, or laser surgery for temporary relief; C-section for baby	~ for women: cervical cancer ~ for babies: if passed through birth canal, permanent evidence of disease over entire body
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome	Viral  <not curable>	Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus; gradually depletes immune system enabling common and severe infections to take over body; after contracting HIV, diagnosed with AIDS when t-cell count below 200 or 1 or more opportunistic infections	Oral, Anal, or Vaginal sex; IV drug use; to baby through development, delivery, and breast feeding	May go through asymptomatic period from 6 months-15 years, then have night sweats, joint pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and countless other symptoms associated with acquired infections	Treatments aid in specific symptoms or to reduce viral load or boost t-cell count; most popular treatment is the "cocktail" of 3 or more mixed drugs; AZT popular for babies to reduce risk of transmission	~ many people unaware of infection during asymptomatic period, therefore transmission can be frequent and careless; HIV/AIDS does not actually kill you, it’s the opportunistic infections that kill

Unique Facts:

• There appears to be an 80/20 split among men and women in detection of STDs. Of the women who contract a STD, 20% of the time they will show symptoms, and 80% of the time they will not. Of the men who contract a STD, 80% of the time they will show symptoms, and 20% of the time they will not. The key factor in this distinction is that most of the women’s anatomy is internal, with very few nerves to detect pain. On the other hand, a male’s anatomy is mainly external, enabling a man to see exactly what is going on most of the time (Gross).
• "1 in 50 high school students reports having injected an illegal drug. Use of alcohol and drugs impairs a person’s willingness and ability to postpone sex or use condoms and other precautions while having sex. People who have sex while intoxicated are at a higher risk for sexually transmitted diseases(AIDAtlanta)."
• Anyone may contract a STD: black or white, male, female or transgendered. All you have to do is put yourself at risk.

• Byer, Curtis O. and Louis W. Shainberg. Dimensions of Human Sexuality. 3^rd Ed. Dubuque: Wm.
• C. Brown Publishers, 1991. 142-172.
• Gross, Jenny and Gayle Mingledorff. ASKUS Presentation Guide. AIDAtlanta, 1999.
• Hyde, Janet Shibley. Understanding Human Sexuality. 4^th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. 552-579.
• "Just the Facts! Youth & HIV." AIDAtlanta, 1999.

Do Kids Have Sex?

According to a study by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention:

• The average age for a U.S. adolescent to engage in sexual activity is 16.
• Over half of 9-12 graders reported engaging in sexual intercourse at least once.
• 19% had engaged in sexual intercourse with four or more partners.
• Of the students who have had four or more partners, only 41% reported using a condom .

• Sexually transmitted disease rates are highest among adolescents. According to the U.S Department of Health and Human Services (September 1996,):
• Gonorrhea rates were highest for adolescents age 15-19 years of age.
• Adolescents age 10-19 are at a higher risk for contracting STD's for several reasons.
• Over the past 20 years, the age at which kids first have sex has gone down and the age at which they marry has gone up.
• This results in an increase of premarital sex, placing adolescents at a higher risk for contracting STD's.
• They are more likely to have multiple sexual partners rather than one long-term relationship.
• Adolescents are more likely to have unprotected sex and choose "high-risk" sexual partners.
• Adolescent females may have an increased physiological susceptibility to STD's due to "increased cervical ectopy and lack of immunity" (Moore, et al.,).
• Sexual activity that puts adolescents at risk for Gonorrhea, HPV, and chlamydia also put them at risk for contracting HIV. In 1995, HIV was 6th among the leading causes of death for 15-24 year olds. Lets look at some factors that may influence these behaviors.

According to More et al., adolescents who engage in early sexual intercourse are likely to have other unconventional behaviors as well. For example:

• Early use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs.
• School problems.
• Delinquency.
• Physical aggression.
• Other factors linked to early sexual intercourse are:
• Living with a single parent or experiencing parents marital disruption.
• Having sexually active peers and siblings.

• Having educated parents.
• Strong family relations.
• Parental supervision.
• Sexually abstinent peers.
• Good grades in school.
• Frequent church attendance.

Anybody who has engaged in sexual activity (even once) is at risk for STD's. However, proper use of contraception greatly reduces the risk of contraction. All adolescents in the United States have access to confidential diagnosis and treatment of STD's (including HIV testing and counseling). Treatment and medical care are offered to adolescents with out parental consent or knowledge. These services may be obtained through a school nurse or a community health service.

References

• Division of STD Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 1995. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Atlanta: Center for Disease Control and Prevention, September 1996.
• Moore, K., Miller, B., Sugland, B., Morrison, D., Glei, D., Blumenthal, C. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Contract No. DHHS-100-92-0015, D.O. 08.
• Rosenberg, H.M., Ventura S.J., Maurer, J.D., et al. Births and deaths: United States, 1995. Monthly vital statistics report; vol. 45 no 3, supp2, P 31. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics 1996.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. Center for Disease Control and Prevention, October 1993.

It is easy to think of the AIDS virus as being the only sexually transmitted disease that is presently incurable, but there are two other viral STD's that warrant our close attention. The first is Genital Herpes, which has been contracted by an estimated 31 million Americans. (Glaxo Wellcome Inc., 1996) The second is Genital Warts, that has an annual incidence of 1 million new cases worldwide. (Burrowes Wellcome Co., 1992) These diseases may not be curable yet, but they are treatable, and there are many steps a person can take to effectively deal with a positive diagnosis.

What Exactly are Genital Herpes and Genital Warts?

Genital Herpes, commonly referred to as HSV (Herpes Simplex Virus), is a viral STD spread through the direct skin contact of vaginal, anal, and oral sex. Symptoms usually appear within 2-20 days of first contact with the virus. Red, inflamed skin in the affected area will eventually develop into small, open blisters that soon close over with new skin. This process can be painful or itchy, and may cause flu-like symptoms. Transmission is easiest when open sores are present, but is also very possible even when physical symptoms are not visible. (Global Health)

-Genital Warts, or HPV (Human Papillomavirus), is also a viral STD contracted through vaginal, anal, and oral sex. It can too be passed on when there are no visible symptoms, but is more likely when growths are present. The warts can be flesh-colored, gray, or pink in color. They appear as either smooth and round, or flat and raised bumps, but can also be cauliflower-like if multiple growths occur. (Planned Parenthood of Western Washington)

Consistent condom use is vital to prevention for both diseases, but not a guarantee since all affected areas may not be covered. Use of spermicidal foams and jellies have been shown to offer additional protection (Global Health), and all forms of sexual contact should be avoided if either partner shows any symptoms of an outbreak. (Glaxo Wellcome Inc., 1996)

What are some normal feelings or emotions that may follow a positive diagnosis?

Many people experience shame, anger, helplessness, along with seeing themselves as "dirty" or "imperfect". These are all very common reactions. There is still a social stigma associated with these infections, which may cause a questioning of one's own character and purity. Feelings of self-hatred can make acceptance of compliments, praise, and mutual attraction difficult. (Burrowes Wellcome Co., 1992) It is not unusual to feel used and bitter, since in many instances there is no warning or foreknowledge of a partner's infection. In some cases, an infected partner may not even know that they are carrying the disease. Unfortunately, trust and intimacy can be lost to pessimism and resentment. (American Social Health Association, 1996)

Fear about what the future may bring can also cause a great deal of anxiety. There is an understandable concern over one's ability to have a good sex life, find a partner, and eventually have a family. Often a positive diagnosis leads people to withdraw from potential relationships, for fear of rejection. Infected partners may become enmeshed in a current relationship even if the situation is an unsatisfying or harmful one, because they do not think anyone else will be willing to be intimate with them. The ability to have healthy children is also a worry, since it is possible, but not common, to infect the baby at birth. (American Social Health Association, 1996) These concerns are certainly valid, but if responsibility and precautions are taken, an active, healthy, and productive life can be achieved. (Glaxo Wellcome Inc., 1996)

Are there ways to deal with upsetting emotions, if they do arise?

Try talking with a friend. Make sure it is someone you can trust. Confiding in a loved one will help you to stop feeling like you have a "dirty little secret", or that you are all alone. (Glaxo Wellcome Inc., 1996)

Talk to your partner. This is a must, but make sure you can also trust him or her. Know all the facts first, choose a comfortable atmosphere, and try to be honest. Discuss a "plan of action", and give them time to adjust. Most partners react well to the news and continue to offer love and support. (Glaxo Wellcome Inc., 1996)

Consult your own healthcare provider. If you are satisfied with the quality of care you have received thus far, and feel comfortable with your practitioner, feel free to ask questions and have all treatment options explained to you. Being well-informed can boost confidence and self- esteem.

Take advantage of support groups. There are millions of people out there affected by these two diseases, and these groups can offer the confidentiality, warm environment, and shared experiences needed for you to express difficult emotions. These groups aim to provide accurate information to help people better understand and manage their condition. (American Social Health Association, 1995)

References:

• The Boston Women's Health Collective. The New Our Bodies, Ourselves. New York: Simon and Schuster Inc., 1984
• American Social Health Association. HPV News. Research Triangle Park, NC., 1995
• American Social Health Association. HPV: Questions and Answers. Research Triangle Park, NC., 1995
• American Social Health Organization. The Helper. Research Triangle Park, NC., Fall 1996
• Burrowes Wellcome Co. New Treatment Information on the Management of Recurrent Genital Herpes. Research Triangle Park, NC., 1996
• Glaxo Wellcome Inc. "Learn about herpes? I can do that." Research Triangle Park, NC., 1996

• The STD clinic at a local health department
• Your own healthcare professional

• The National STD Hotline 1(800) 227-8922
• The National Herpes Hotline 1(919) 361-8488
• The Herpes Resource Center 1(800) 230-6039

• ASHA Resource Center, Dept. C, P.O. Box 13827, Research Triangle Park, NC., 27709
• for pamphlets and educational material
• ASHA/HPV, P.O. Box 13827, Research Triangle Park, NC., 27709-3827
• for a subscription to HPVNews newsletter
• HRC, P.O. Box 13827, Research Triangle Park, NC., 27709
• for a subscription to The Helper newsletter

"According to a national study by the Alan Guttmacher Institute in 1988, about 85% of all schools offer sexuality education" (Kirby et al., 1994). Debate exists over the type of sex education which should be taught in schools. Currently, there are three models of sex education.

Model #1 Comprehensive Sex Education

This model is based on the assumption that teens are going to have sex no matter what, so sex education should focus on reducing the risks associated with sex, such as pregnancy and disease. Advocates of this model believe the following:

• Teenage sexual activity is inevitable
• Sex education should be value-neutral
• Schools should be open about sexual matters
• Information about contraceptives should be included in sex education (Lickona, 1993)

This model is based on the idea that abstaining from sex is the only 100% sure way of preventing pregnancy and disease; however, due to the AIDS epidemic, it is imperative that those teens who choose to have sex anyway are educated about contraceptives in order to lower their risks. Proponents of this model do the following:

• Advocate that students practice safer sex through condom usage
• Teach abstinence while promoting condom usage (Lickona, 1993)

This model evolved in response to the failure of the previous two models. It focuses on promotion of values to keep teens from having sex. This model contains the following characteristics:

• Sexual abstinence is the only morally responsible and medically safe choice for unmarried teenagers
• Premarital sex is not responsible sex just because a condom is used
• Having sex with your marriage partner who is only having sex with you, is the only way to have sex safely (Lickona, 1993)

• Focus on reducing only a few sexual risk taking behaviors
• Teach young people how to avoid sex or how to use contraceptives
• Provide basic, accurate information on the risks of unprotected sex
• Address social and media influences on sexual behavior
• Provide modeling and communication skills
• Emphasize behavioral values and norms (Kirby et al., 1994)

• Sex Respect

• Deals with peer pressure and dating
• Promotes abstinence from sexual intercourse by teaching respect for self and others
• Uses cartoons
• Comes with a syllabus for the teacher, a student textbook, and a guidebook for the
• student's family
• Effectiveness: Teens in this program showed a significant amount of change in their attitudes towards premarital sex. Changes in attitude were shown to have a positive effect on actual sexual behaviors (Olsen et al., 1991).

• Schinke-Blythe-Gilchrest.

• Stresses that teenagers should avoid having sex or use some form of birth control during sex
• Talks about media influences on teen sexuality
• Includes discussion on "lines" used to get someone to have sex
• Effectiveness: Teens who were sexually active before involvement in this program showed an increase in contraceptive use after the program (Kirby et al., 1994).
• Postponing Sexual Involvement
• Designed for middle school students
• Focuses on helping young teens to delay sex
• Talks about media influences on teen sexuality
• Includes discussion on "lines" used to get someone to have sex
• Effectiveness: This program helped teens to delay first intercourse, as well as decreasing the frequency of intercourse among those teens who were previously sexually active (Kirby et al., 1994).
• Reducing the Risk
• Discusses how certain situations might lead to sex
• Talks about social factors that discourage teens from using birth control
• Stresses that teenagers should avoid having sex or use some form of birth control during sex
• Effectiveness: This program helped teens to delay first intercourse (Kirby et al., 1994).
• AIDS Prevention for Adolescents in School
• Targets teens who are at higher risk for contracting AIDS
• Emphasizes avoiding risky situations and using condoms
• Talks about media influences on teen sexuality
• Includes discussion on "lines" used to get someone to have sex
• Effectiveness: Sexually experienced teens in this program showed an increase in condom usage (Kirby et al., 1994).

Besides having contradictory results, it should be noted that different sex education programs have different outcomes in mind. For example, comprehensive sex education aims to prevent teens from getting pregnant or getting a disease through sexual intercourse. On the other hand, directive sex education's goal is to prevent teens from having premarital sex altogether. While both types of sex education have shown a degree of success, the question still remains as to whether or not it is better to teach kids abstinence, or to hand them a condom and expect that they will have sex no matter what kind of instruction they receive. In any case, more research needs to be done on this topic.

The issue of sexual crimes is one topic that often goes unmentioned in teen sex education programs. Because so many young people are the victims or perpetrators of such crimes, this issue needs to be addressed more thoroughly.

To Read More:

• Kasun, J.R. (1994). Condom nation. Policy Review,68, 79-82.
• Krueger, M.M. (1993). Everyone is an exception: assumptions to avoid in the sex education classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 74, 569-572.
• Tapia, A. (1993). The radical choice for sex ed. Christianity Today, 37, 24-29.

Sexual education in school systems has been adopted by many states in the country. However, it is the states' right to choose the content and time period that this particular cirricula will be introduced to the adolescent students. " Six states, however, actually prohibit discussion of particular topics, such as contraceptive use by unmarried minors, abortion or homosexuality." (Fischler and Pine, 1995) Adolescents lack the overall knowledge of what contraception is, where to obtain it, and how to effectively use it.

The rates of unplanned teenage pregnancies are overwhelmingly high. " As is documented... the result is about 1,000,000 unwanted teenage pregnancies each year in the United States.". (Byrne, 1983) A major contributing factor to this statistic is the lack of contraceptive information available to adolescents. " If contraception information is included in sexuality education programmes, it is associated with fewer pregnancies due to more effective use of contraception." (Fischler and Pine, 1995) One study concluded that "...increasing the legitimacy and availability of contraception and sex education is likely to result in declining teenage pregnancy rates." (Fischler and Pine, 1995)

The following key contraceptive concepts should be introduced to sexual education programs:

• various types of contraception available (birth control, condoms etc..)
• effectiveness of the contraceptive device in preventing pregnancy and sexually
• transmitted diseases
• places to obtain the contraception (clinics, family practicioner etc...)

Many sexual education programs focus completely on the rule of abstinence. This rule disregards the sexually active adolescent youth. " Fewer than one-third of state guides include any sexual behavior topic other than abstinence". (Fischler and Pine, 1995)

The lack of contraceptive information availble to adolescents is disturbing. Providing a more extensive sexual education program would dramatically contribute to the adolescents sexual decisions and overall knowledge about contraception. " Knowledge and information about sexuality and contraception has been shown to contribute to increased contraceptive use, particularly among teengers." (Fischler and Pine, 1995)

The next step is to implement contraception into our sexual education programs. The knowledge of contraception has been linked to the reduction in teenage pregnancy, and that benefit alone should be reason enough to include extensive education about contraception into our existing sexual education programs.

References:

• Byrne, D. and Fisher, W. Adolescents, Sex, and Contraception. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1983.
• Fischler, L. and Pine, R. The Right To Know. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is any unwanted sexual attention a female experiences (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992). It includes leering, pinching, patting, comments, and suggestions of a sexual nature (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

• No one is immune from sexual harassment.
• The majority of females will experience harassment at the workplace (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).
• A survey conducted by Ms. in 1991, found that 43% of females experienced sexual harassment at work or in an academic environment (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

Rape is any kind of sexual activity committed against a female's will (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992). Rape serves as a tool for keeping down or punishing females deprived of power by sexism, racism, and other forms of discrimination. Rape is more likely to be committed by someone the victims know than by a stranger (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

• 9 out of 10 rapes occur between members of the same racial group (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).
• African American females are at greater risk of being raped than any other group (White, 1990).
• Two-thirds of reported rapes are planned (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

The sexual abuse of children is one of the country's most frequent and widespread crimes, affecting as many as 25% of females before the age of age thirteen (White, 1990). Sexual abuse can be committed by family friends, doctors, teachers, baby-sitters...

• 1 in 3 American females will be sexually abused in her lifetime (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).
• African American females are more frequently the victims of sexual abuse than white females (White, 1990).

Incest is sexual contact that occurs between family members (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992). A family member uses their power, and the child's love and dependence to initiate sexual contact (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

• Most incest occurs between older male relatives and younger females in the family (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).
• Incest includes looking, touching, prolonged kissing, oral sex, and intercourse (The Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

Not only must females endure these abuses, they must deal with their after effects. Victims of sexual harassment, rape, sexual abuse, and incest are at increased risk of suicide, depression, drug and alcohol abuse, STD's gynecological problems, and a variety of psychiatric disorders (Heise, 1994, Koss & Heslet, 1992, in The Boston women's Health Book Collective, 1992).

To Read Further

• Bart, Pauline, and Patricia O'Brien. Stopping Rape: Successful Survival Strategies. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, 1985.
• Bass, Ellen, and Laura Davis. The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Sexual Abuse. New York: Harper & Row, 1988.

 

• Kroger, J. (1989). Identity in Adolescence: The Balance between Self and Other. New York: Routledge.
• Rekers, G. A. & Jurich, A.P. (1983). Development of problems of puberty and sex roles in adolescence. Handbook of Clinical Child Psychology, 785-797.
• Steinberg, L. (1993). Adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.

• Anderson, D.A. (1994). Lesbian and gay adolescents: Social and Developmental considerations. High School Journal, 77, 13-19.
• Dempsey, C.L. (1994). Health and social issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents. Families in Society, 75, 160-1767.
• Hunter, J. & Schaecher, R. (1994). AIDS prevention for lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents. Families in Society, 75, 346-354.
• Katchadourian, H. (1990). In Feldman, S.S. & Elliott, G.R. (Ed.), At the Threshold (pp. 330-351). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Bohan, Janis S. (1996). Psychology and Sexual Orientation - Coming to Terms. Routledge, New York, NY.
• Blumenfeld, Warren J., & Lindop, Laurie. Homophobia's Impact on Family. Website http://www.glstn.org/respect/.
• U.S. Dept. Of Health and Human Services. (1989). Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide., Washington, D.C..
• Hetrick Martin Institute. (1992). Factfile: Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youth. New York, NY.
• Sivertsen, Wiggsy D. LCSW, & Thames, Terri B. PhD. (1995). Each Child that Dies - Gays and Lesbians in Your Schools. Mulicultures, Unity through Diversity - a Monograph of Diversity in the Field of Education. Vol. 1.

 

• Back, Gloria Guss. (1985). Are You Still My Mother? Are You Still My Family?Warner Books, Inc.
• Bernstein, Robert A. (1995). Straight Parents, Gay Children - Keeping Families Together. Thunder Mouth Press, New York, NY .
• Bohan, Janis. S. (1996). Psychology and Sexual Orientation. Routledge, New York, NY.
• Eichberg, Rob, Ph.D. (1990). Coming Out. Penquin Books, USA, Inc. NY, NY.
• Fairchild, Betty & Hayward, Nancy. (1989) Now That You Know - What Every Parent Should Know About Homosexuality. Second Harvest/HBJ Book.
• Jennings, Kevin, ed. (1994). One Teacher in Ten. Alyson Publications, Inc. Boston, MA.
• McNeil, John, J. (1993). The Church and the Homosexual, 4th Edition. Beacon Press, Boston, MA.
• Rafkin, Louise, ed. (1996). Different Daughters, 2nd edition. Cleis Press, Inc. Pittsburgh, PA.
• Singer, Bennett L., ed. (1994). Growing up Gay, Growing up Lesbian - A Literary Anthology. The New Press, New York, NY.

• Brooks-Gunn, J. & Furstenberg, F. F. (1989). Adolescent sexual behavior. American Psychologist, 44(2), 249-257.
• Barth, R. P., Fetro, J. V., Leland, N., & Volkan, K. (1992). Preventing adolescent pregnancy with social and cognitive skills. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 208-232.
• Calderone, M. S. (1988). Family transition to parenthood: Emerging concepts for sexual health. Marriage and Family review, 12(3-4), 339-356.
• Handelsman, C.D., Cabral, R. J., & Weisfeld, G. E. (1987). Sources of information and adolescent sexual knowledge and behavior. Journal of Adolescent Research, 2(4), 455-463.
• Huston, R. L., Martin, L. J., & Foulds, D. M. (1990). Effect of a program to facilitate parent-child communication about sex. Clinical Pediatrics, 29(11), 626-633.
• Maynard, R. A. (Ed.). (1996). Kids having kids: A Robin Hood Foundation special report on the costs of adolescent childbearing. New York: Robin Hood Foundation.
• Warren, C. (1992). Perspectives on international sex practices and American family sex communication relevant to teenage sexual behavior in the United States. Health Communication, 4(2), 121-136.
• White, S. D. & DeBlassie, R. R. (1992). Adolescent sexual behavior. Adolescence, 27(105), 183-191.

• Bell, R., et al. (1988). Changing Bodies, Changing Lives: A Book for Teens on Sex and Relationships. New York: Random House.
• Cherniak, D. (1983). A Book About Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Montreal: Montreal Health Press.
• Crowe, M. & Norsigian,J. (1992). Sexually transmitted diseases. In K.M. Stone & M. Topal (Ed.) The New Our Bodies, Ourselves (308-325). New York: Simon & Schuster Inc.
• D'Angelo, L.J. & DiClemente, R.J. (1996). Sexually transmitted diseases including humna immunodeficency virus infection. In W.B. Hansen & L.E. Ponton (Ed.) Handbook of Adolescent Health Risk Behavior (333-367). New York: Plenum Press.

• Kirby,D., Short, L., Colins, J., Rugg, D., Kolbe, L., Howard, M., Miller, B., Sonenstein, F., & Zabin, L.S.(1994). School-based programs to reduce sexual risk behaviors: a review of effectiveness. Public Health Reports, 109, 339-360.
• Lickona, T.(1993). Where sex education went wrong. Educational Leadership,51, 84-89.
• Olsen, J.A., Weed, S.E., Ritz, G.M., Jensen, L.C. (1991). The effects of three abstinence sex education programs on student attitudes toward sexual activity. Adolescence, 26, 631-641.

• The Boston Women's Health Book Collective (1992). Violence Against Women. In The New Our Bodies Ourselves (p. 131-150).
• Heise, (1994), Koss & Heslet, (1992). In The New Our Bodies Ourselves (p. 131-150).
• White, E. (1990). Love Don't Always Make it Right: Black Women and Domestic Violence. In The Black Women's Health Book Speaking for Ourselves (p. 92-97).

Links:

Demographic, Biological, Psychological, and Social Predictors of the Timing of First Intercourse
By: Laurie L. Meschke, Janine M. Zweig, Bonnie L. Barber, & Jacquelynne S. Eccles
From the Journal of Research on Adolescence, this article outlines a longitudinal study which takes into account many varying factors, including biological factors, which affect the beginning of voluntary sexual intercourse among adolescents. Very thorough and scientific, it explores many variables which delay or promote the onset of sexual intercourse.

Adolescent Sexuality.
By: Planned Parenthood Federation of America

This website provides a document written by Planned Parenthood regarding virtually all aspects of adolescent sexuality. It discusses stages that adolescents go through in finding their sexual identities, cites many studies of sexuality, and provides current statistics regarding adolescent sexual activity. For a person looking for statistics about adolescent sexuality, this is a great start.

Adolescent Sexuality, Gender and the HIV Epidemic.
By: Kim Rivers and Peter Aggleton

This article discusses adolescent sexuality, gender, and the HIV epidemic. Some information addressed includes how gender, age and sexuality affects adolescent vulnerability to HIV, how sex education can impact the individual, and how adults must respond to adolescents dealing with HIV/AIDS.

Family and Community Influences on Adolescent Sexuality.
By: Advocates For Youth

This article discusses family and community influences on adolescent sexuality. It emphasizes how sexuality is viewed in several European countries and also makes comparisons between them and the United States. It stresses that their openness to sexuality benefits the adolescent through open communication.

ReCAPP Current Research.
By: Resource Center for Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention

This link is mainly for those interested in adolescent pregnancy prevention. On this page, there are about 25 links to articles about adolescent pregnancy, sexual partners, family influences, adolescent STD's, etc. This page would be particularly valuable to those who are interested in a wide variety of topics regarding adolescent sexuality and how it affects other aspects of their life.

Pregnancies Averted Among U.S. Teenagers By the Use of Contraceptives.
By: James Kahn, Claire Brindis, and Dana Glei

This article examines the use of contraceptives among adolescent girls. The personal and social costs of contraceptive use are addressed. A study is cited in which it revealed that contraceptive use averted many unwanted pregnancies and other complications.

Sex, Contraception and Childbearing Among High-Risk Youth: Do Different Factors Influence Males and Females?.
By: Lori Kowaleski-Jones and Frank L. Mott

This article examines how different attitudes and behaviors affect the likelihood that adolescents engage in sexual activity. Gender is also looked at to see how it predicts sexual activity. This is mainly a scientific article and is applicable for those looking for a study regarding male and female sexual activity.

Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood.
By: Danziger, Sandra and Naomi Farber

This article examines the consequences of recent changes in adolescent sexuality, such as increased teenage pregnancy and more sexual freedom. Mainly, this article addresses new trends in the sexual experiences of adolescents.

This site was produced by students taking HDFS 433: The Transition to Adulthood and HDFS 239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback can be sent to the individual authors or to Nancy Darling (darling@bard.edu).

Last updated 5/07/02.