Adolescence: Change and Continuity

Questions from Teachers . . . Answers from Students

Poverty influences cognitive development in many ways, most of which are related to the availability of educational resources, the culture of impoverished neighborhoods, and the practices of schools in impoverished neighborhoods. According to Knapp & Shields (1990) ôdisadvantaged children, the children of poverty, are at risk in our nations schoolsö (p. I-3).

Poverty affects cognitive development first by failing to provide adequate preparation needed for the child to succeed in school. Children of poverty are less likely to be exposed to educational resources such as books, magazines and newspapers. Knapp & Shields (1990) found that this lack of exposure to educational resources prior to formal schooling may set the stage for failure in reading. Furthermore, children of poverty are at a disadvantage from the beginning because, along with other problems, they tend to possess different types of speech and language disorders (Adler, 1979). This may interfere with the initial reading and comprehension acquisition of the child, which ultimately affects how and what the child learns in later years. These factors, along with Knapp & ShieldsÆ (1990) finding that ôschools with high concentrations of poor children routinely schedule significantly less literacy instructional time than schools with few poor childrenö (p. I-3-I-4) contributes to the lower levels of cognitive ability and achievement among poor children. Finally, according to Knapp & Shields (1990), ôStudents and teachers must be able to reach their classes safely, be reasonably free from interruption, and have access to sufficient materials to carry out their academic tasksö (p. XIII-3). This is difficult to establish when schools are surrounded by poverty-stricken neighborhoods that are often plagued with violence and do not have sufficient funds to purchase the necessary school supplies and materials.

Poverty further affects cognitive development because of how the middle class values and practices of the schools and teachers interact with a culture that has a completely different way of life (Gibson, et al., 1967). Knapp & Shields (1990) claim that low-income students might face school failure as a consequence of being unable to make sense of school norms, values, and expectations to respond appropriately. Children that grow up in an impoverished community consistently show predictable behaviors such as never accomplishing academic work, leaving school before graduation, becoming parents before age 18, never moving out of the community, and becoming unemployed as a young adult. These behaviors could be a result of the stressors that are present, for example the lack of money or the death of a friend.

Also, many cultures have learning and living styles as well as different speech and language patterns that differ from members of the dominant culture (Alder, 1979). Statistics show that most students who drop out of school are from lower socioeconomic families and minority groups. It has been found that students who drop out of school are two years behind the average students in their reading ability (Alder, 1979). The ability to read and communicate effectively are two fundamental components of an effective education. Without these abilities, children will be less likely to succeed in school, to develop cognitively at the rates of the average students, and fulfill the requirements for graduation (Alder, 1979).

This aspect of learning is often neglected by school systems, and consequently students are not learning. When students from various cultural backgrounds begin their first year of school, assuming that English is not their first language, they are forced to learn and build on vocabulary they do not possess (Alder, 1979). This results in a severe lack of cross-cultural education that succeeds in placing barriers between school systems and the children who look to them for an adequate education. Also, due to this lack of cross-cultural education, many young children from bilingual homes are rejected by their peers and classroom instructors, and are labeled learning retarded by their school systems (Alder, 1979). Instead of lack of ability, much of this labeling can be attributed to conflicts in language comprehension and the differences in culture (along the lines of poverty and language) between the students and teachers. There are numerous programs for low-income, disadvantaged, bilingual children. However, not enough emphasis is given to the variety of cultures from which children may originate.

Overall, poverty has been found to have a greater effect on the cognitive ability of children than it does on adolescents. A study by Guo (1998) examined the timing and the influences of cumulative poverty on childrenÆs cognitive ability and achievement. An important objective of this study was to examine the differences between the influences of poverty on cognitive ability and achievement. Poverty cumulated over childhood was found to have a more detrimental effect on childhood cognitive ability, whereas adolescent achievement was found to be affected more by poverty. Guo (1998) also found that childhood poverty was not related to childhood achievement. Therefore, early prevention programs should be implemented, such as Head Start, for younger children living in poverty. ôEarlier programs should probably focus on stimulation young childrenÆs development of cognitive ability and later programs on cultivation adolescents motivation for academic achievementö (Guo, 1998, 12). Poor children could also benefit from programs that increase parent involvement because ôstudies have shown an association between student achievement and a wide variety of efforts that allow parents to participate meaningfully in in-school activitiesö (Knapp & Shields, 1990, p. XIII-6).

Other intervention programs that were found to improve academic performance are based on cooperative learning techniques, in which the students work in groups toward a common goal. Computer assisted instruction and other technology-based approaches aim to create ôproblem solving environments,ö and to improve thinking skills and comprehension. Specific examples of programs based on this type of learning technique include: 1.) The Accelerated Schools Program, which was initiated in 1986 by Stanford University, 2.)The Corner School Development Program, which was developed by James Corner at Yale University, and 3.) The Higher Order Thinking Skills Program, which was developed by Stanley Pogrow at the University of Arizona (Levine, 1998).

In conclusion, poverty affects cognitive ability on many different dimensions. Poverty stricken children start school at a disadvantage that negatively affects their whole educational career. They are not getting adequate preparation at home, and schools in poor neighborhoods tend to lack many resources. Furthermore, cultural differences in communication and values between poor children and the school systems sets the stage for continued school failure. To combat the negative effects that poverty has on cognitive development, outside programs that focus on the preparation of the child before formal schooling starts must be implemented in poor neighborhoods. Also, teachers and school systems must be educated on how to communicate effectively with the students who are from different cultures than themselves. Since poverty effects cognitive in numerous ways, programs that are multi-dimensional would be the most successful in raising the cognitive ability of poor children.

For Further Information:

Alder, S. (1979). Poverty Children and their Language: Implication for Teaching and

Treating. New York: Grune & Stratton Inc.

Gibson, J.S., Curtin, T., & Kvaraceus, W.C. (1967). Poverty, Education, and Race

Relations: Studies and Proposals. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Guo, G. (1998). The timing of the influences of cumulative poverty on childrenÆs

Cognitive ability and achievement. Social Forces, vol. 77 (1).

Levine, D.U. (1998). Instructional approaches and interventions that can improve the

academic performance of African American students. Journal of Negro

Education, vol. 6.

Knapp, P.M., & Shields, P.M. (1990) Better Schooling for the Children of Poverty:

Alternatives to Conventional Wisdom, II.

Terie McFarland

Megan Weickert

Stephanie Sheldon

Krissy Shick

Last updated 4/16/01.