Adolescence: Change and Continuity

Questions from Teachers . . . Answers from Students

We are students studying Human Development and Family Studies at Penn State University. We have received an assignment from Professor Darling concerning your inquiry about the effects of poverty on adolescents' cognitive development. We have gathered research on the topic and would like to share the information with you.

Guo's (1998) article, which discussed a link between poverty and lower educational attainment among children and adolescents, provided important information. Researchers debate whether the impact of cumulative poverty is the greatest during early childhood or if the length of exposure to poverty is more influential, regardless of life stages, on cognitive development. Some researchers feel that cognitive development is most impacted during the first few years of a child's life. Duncan and Brooks-Gunn (as cited in Guo, 1998) found that the economic conditions of a child's family in childhood appear to be more influential in shaping cognitive outcomes than are financial situations in adolescence. Other researchers believe that the years following early adolescence marks the time when a child can begin to fully understand the extent of societal messages received in a community of poverty. Impoverished communities often affect motivation and opportunity in adolescents due to the fact that children may see family members being discriminated against in the workplace. They do not see family members obtaining desirable jobs, so adolescents are less likely to be motivated to achieve the few opportunities that are available to them (Guo, 1998). McLanahan and Bumpass have suggested that intergenerational consequences are not due entirely to socioeconomic differences, although they qualify this somewhat by stating that they were not able to control directly for family income. They attribute this development to the role-model theory, which argues that children develop their ideas of what is acceptable from what they observe in their parents (Kamerman & Kahn, 1988).

Cognitive ability and achievement are two separate factors discussed in Guo (1998). Cognitive ability was defined as a measure of a child's rate of learning and is influenced by the environment and genetic makeup. It is individual and less influenced by contextual effects. Achievement is a measure of what is learned and is often affected by motivation and opportunity. It is more of a product of the environment and personal interactions.

The results of Guo's study indicate that childhood appears to be a critical time regarding poverty's effects on cognitive ability because the poverty experienced during this developmental period is more detrimental than the poverty witnessed in adolescence. Cognitive achievement is significantly affected by poverty in early adolescence due to the fact that these children often witness the members of their communities failing to obtain desirable jobs and livelihoods. Therefore, they may not have the motivation to achieve their fullest potential (Guo, 1998).

Family life is another significant factor in determining a child's rate of cognitive development. The way in which a family manages its stressful economic situation can affect a child's functioning in the classroom. If a family handles poverty negatively, these children are at risk for delays in scholastic functioning and as they get older they have more difficulties (Barnette, Vondra, & Shonk, 1996). Studies conducted on the effects of children living in impoverished single-mother households indicate that the absence of a father can affect the child's cognitive development. Other researchers contest this theory because child cognitive difficulties can arise in all families regardless of financial status (Kamerman & Kahn, 1988). A review of demographic data on single-parent families suggests that conditions of poverty and potential discrimination due to social status of the family members are likely to be constant sources of stress. Discrimination based on gender, racial identification, and age are well known issues of American life (Mulroy, 1988).

The school system is found to have a profound impact on the cognitive outcomes of children. More specific is the overall system of this country. As Darby points out in his book, the United States competes well in the comparison of intelligent people and the nation has a very high percentage of students being sent to college (Darby, 1996). On the other end of the spectrum, about ten percent of children do not finish high school (Darby, 1996). Darby contends that the reason for these diverse statistics is that the government is running the public school system. This, of course, is not a direct result of the government's input, but because of the democracy that surrounds the government working together. More clearly, too many people have influence on what happens with the educational system. Darby (1996) attests that private schools may provide a model for how the public schools should operate, with few people of authority in control.

References

Barnette, D., Vondra, J. I., & Shonk, S. M. (1996). School functioning of low-income, maltreated, and comparison children. Adolescence, 5, 23-28.

Darby, M. R. (Ed.). (1996). Reducing Poverty in America: Views and Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Guo, G. (1998). The timing of the influences of cumulative poverty on children's cognitive ability and achievement. Social forces, 77, 257-288.

Kahn, A. J., & Kamerman,S. B. (1988). Mothers alone: strategies for a time of change. Dover: Auburn House Publishing Company.

Mulroy, E. A. (1988). Women as single parents: confronting institutional barriers in the courts, the workplace, and the housing market. Dover: Auburn House Publishing Company.

We hope that this information helps you to understand a little more about poverty and cognitive development. We have included references so you can gain more knowledge from the sources that we used. Good luck.

Sincerely,

Tara Aceto, Joanne Conn, Kristin Cusat, Kate Gaffney, and Brandy Richey

Last updated 4/16/01.