Adolescence:
Change and ContinuityAdolescence:
Change and ContinuityAlthough teenage pregnancy has been deemed an epidemic in recent years, the overall rate of adolescent childbearing has actually dropped over the past decade. Therefore teen pregnancy is not an epidemic because of the number of adolescents giving birth but because most adolescent parents are not married or planning to marry. Between 1960 and 1983 the number of babies born to unmarried adolescents had increased threefold (Dash,p.26).
Who is at risk of becoming pregnant as an adolescent?
The best predictor of teen pregnancy is if the adolescents' mother had a child at an early age. This cycle of teen pregnancy is even more likely if the family is poor (Pirog-Good,p.354). This cycle proves true for both male and female adolescents.
What are the effects of teenage pregnancy on the mother?
Early unmarried parenthood is generally tied to reduced educational achievement, marginal income-earning capacity, and welfare dependence. If the teenage parents do marry they are more likely to divorce than older married couples (Dash, p.26).
What are the effects of teenage pregnancy on the child?
The children of parents seventeen and younger have lower cognitive scores than children of older parents. They are also less likely to adapt to the disciplines of school. These children are at greater risk of being born at a low birth weight which puts them at a higher risk of suffering from lifelong learning disabilities. They have a greater chance of growing up in a disrupted home during high school, have lower academic aptitude as teenagers, and are at a higher risk of repeating the pattern of early parenthood. There is also a consistent tendency for these children to have lower IQ scores (Dash,p.25-26). Babies of teenage mothers are more likely to be under aroused or over aroused than babies of older mothers (Baldwin,p.36). One long term problem found in children of mothers under eighteen is that they are hostile and resistive. They also exhibited greater overactivity and lack of impulse control (Burton,p.37). The reasons for these problems are not only the mothers young age but also the quality of prenatal care they receive (Baldwin,p.36).
What keeps teenagers from using birth control?
Ignorance, negative attitudes about contraception, lack of awareness of pregnancy risks, lower moral reasoning and a general lack of knowledge about sex and birth control are some reasons that adolescents do not use protection (Kimmel and Weiner,p.375).
What methods of intervention should be used to reduce the frequency of teen pregnancy?
Starting a family is challenging for almost everyone, but it is
extremely challenging and stressful for adolescents. Adolescents who are
poverty stricken face even more severe challenges. Many poor adolescents
risk not only the health and lives of themselves but also their children.
CONSEQUENCES OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY
Life is often difficult for a poor adolescent mother and her child. A difficulty in receiving an education is often present. One is three adolescent mothers drop out of school. Only 50% of girls who give birth before age 18 finish high school, compared to 96% of those who wait to become parents (Berk, 1997). With education cut short, adolescent mothers may lack job skills, making it hard for her to find a job and keep it. Many times public support is the only means of survival. Poor parenting skills and lack of social support systems are often factors that result after given birth
HEALTH RISKS TO A TEENAGE MOTHER
Poor adolescent mothers often have poor eating habits, and may smoke, drink alcohol and take drugs, increasing the risk that their babies will be born with health problems. Poor adolescent mothers areleast likely to get early and regular prenatal care. In 1991, 11% of adolescent mothers received late or no prenatal care (Musick, 1993). A serious risk of not receiving prenatal care are birthcomplications. Birth complications are life threatening to the mother and her infant. These complications can be harmful to the infant by impairing cognitive development, especially later on in life.
HEATLH RISKS TO THE BABY
Babies born to poor adolescent mothers may be abused or neglected, developing serious medical or mental illnesses. These babies are more likely to grow up in poverty , without proper guidance and education, and become teenage parents themselves. Poor adolescent mothers also give birth to low-birth weight babies which can result in serious health defects. Babies with low-birth weight are more likely to die in their first month of life than normal weight babies (Bornsteind & Lamb, 1992).
INTERVENTIONS
Poor adolescent mothers who are able to return to school and continue to live with good social support systems result in good outcomes. School classes in family life and sexual education, as well as clinics providing reproductive information and birth control to young people, can prevent pregnancy among adolescents. If pregnancy does occur, adolescents deserve honest and sensitive counseling about options available to them. Special support systems, including adolescent health services, should be available to help adolescents through pregnancy. Most importantly, if adolescents avoid additional births and finish school, it will minimize long term disruptions in her own and her child's development.
For further information on how adolescents spend their time, see:
In 1988, 13% of teens ages 15-19 became pregnant. About half of
these pregnancies resulted in births, 36% in abortions, 17% in adoptions,
and 14% in miscarriages (Voydanoff and Donnelly, 1991, p. 163). Unfortunately,
the number of teenage pregnancies has increased and will continue to persist
because adolescents are becoming sexually active at earlier ages. As these
adolescents continue to have sex and become pregnant, the question, "What
do I do now?" comes into focus. In a majority of cases, these decisions
are often made with the assistance of partners, parents, and friends (Marsiglio
and Menaghan, 1990, p. 313).
Are there associations between pregnancy resolution outcomes and an adolescent's race, family background and education, and religious beliefs?
Teens who become pregnant are faced with the responsibility of making the decision on whether they want to raise their child alone, have an abortion, give it up for adoption, or marry their partner and form a family. Racial differences, religious values, and family background characteristics have been found to be associated with adolescent pregnancy resolution. Black adolescent women from female headed families whose parents had not graduated high school and who had many siblings are more likely to choose single parenthood than marriage or abortion (Voydanoff and Donnelly, 1991, p. 164). As a whole, Black adolescents are more likely to engage in some form of parental rearing whereas white adolescents would choose adoption or abortion. Marsiglio and Menaghan (1990) found that in a sample of adolescents, 77% of black males and 79% of black females preferred some form of parental rearing. 38% of white males and females preferred abortion or adoption (p.320). They also found that White teens and those with more educated parents were more likely to choose abortion than birth. Among those who would prefer not to terminate a pregnancy, only a minority would give the child up for adoption (p.322). As a whole, adolescents receiving or qualifying for welfare were more likely to choose to be a single parent than marriage or abortion; women less self supporting were less likely to choose to be a single parent than marriage or abortion (Voydanoff and Donnelly, 1991 p. 165). According to Voydanoff and Donnelly (1991), premarital pregnant adolescence were more likely to resolve their pregnancies by giving birth than abortion of they had firm religious beliefs (p. 165). It is also important to remember that an adolescent's perceptions of what others would expect them to do may also have some influence and their decision making (Brazzell and Acock, 1988). In the future, researchers need to determine the extent to which male and female partners have realistic and similar expectations about how they choose to resolve their pregnancy will effect their futures.
For More Information:
For further information on how adolescents spend their time, see:
Before any decision is made about your pregnancy you should first
consult with professionals in the field of adolescent pregnancy. You should
also realize that you are not alone. White teenagers in America are more
than twice as likely to become pregnant as Canadians and more than four
times as likely as Swedish youth (Brooks-Gunn, p.5-6,1987). Every person
is unique and that is why it is very important to listen to yourself when
making such an important decision. Be sure that you have researched all
alternatives before making your decision.
Adoption
Research has shown that on an individual level, adoption was generally viewed quite favorably (Daly, p.346,1994). You should never be talked into giving the baby up for adoption because somebody else wants a baby. The decision should be reached because you feel this is the best situation for you and the baby (Lindsay, Rodine, p.103,1985). There are many services available for a pregnant teen looking for adoption services. When looking into these services it is very important to make sure they are legal and certified. The most convenient source of information is your local phone book. You should look under adoption and human services, this will give you the start you are looking for.
Abortion
Abortion is much more available and safe now than it was 20 years ago and is thereby seen as a more immediate solution to the problem of unplanned pregnancy (Daly, p.346, 1994). All decisions concerning your body should be of your concern, not others. If you choose abortion because your partner and parents are giving you no other choice, you are likely to regret it (Lindsay, Rodine, p.95, 1989). If this is the way you decide to go it is very important to see a licensed professional. Although this is a common procedure it needs to be done under professional care.
Keeping the Baby This option is the most chosen in our country. This is not to say that it is easier than the other alternatives. It is very important to find support groups that include other young mothers. " The support of a group of other young mothers may bring a significant reduction in the isolation, boredom, and desperation sometimes experienced by young parents (Lindsay, Rodine, p.156, 1989)." When you make the decision to become a parent your number one role will be just that. You must also take into consideration that being a good parent also includes bettering yourself, this should include continuing your education.
References
When do Adolescents date?
Past Roles In the past there was pressure on the fathers to marry if the women became pregnant (Elster, 1986). This was due to the fact that the financial burden of raising an out of wedlock birth fell on the community. In this family setup the father was the primary and essential source of economic support and also the essential disciplinarian (Elster, 1986). Because of the likelihood that the father would work outside the home it reduced the amount of time and opportunity he would have to interact with his family (Elster, 1986). From the late 1800's to the early 1900's, the fathers had to deal with the idea that people hoped they would take a bigger part in their child's life but they usually worked outside the home (Robinson, 1986). Another effect was when they could care for their children almost all childrearing manuals and advice books were directed to mothers with only passing reference to fathers (Elster, 1986). The books also did not distinguish sharply between adolescence and adulthood back then. But there was an emphasis on the transition from a period of economic dependency to maintaining your own household (Park, 1986). A final effect is that schooling was not as big a deal then as it is now. College or even graduating high school was not common (Robinson, 1986).
From the late 1800's to the early 1900's there has been a gradual change in adolescent fatherhood up until the last 15 years, which brings us to what facts we have now. These findings are what most teen fathers know and do today. It is important to understand that there are still fathers on each extreme but this is the majority.
Before Childbirth
During Childbirth
After Childbirth
This information comes from Bryon Robinson's Teenage Fathers 1988.
Problems in Adolescent Fatherhood Today
Adolescent fathers may have problems providing financially for their children or altogether unable to give support. Being young and trying to raise children in a proper way causes difficulties for adolescents. On top of this stress comes another, and that is deciding whether to marry or not before you finish school. If adolescent fathers do not marry and they want to be a part of the child's life there is the problem of not being able to see the baby when they want (Elster, 1986). Teen fathers from past to present have made a lot of progress. In the past school was not as important and getting married was the norm, so things were easier. Under the circumstances of today's society fathers are more involved than people give them credit for. Most of our beliefs about them are stereotypical. On average findings show that these teenage fathers do not just pick up and leave as we so often assume.
References
One reason that teenage pregnancy is viewed as a problem is because
of the serious effects on the child. The problem of teenage parenthood
cannot be solved only by offering services for females. Our failure to
provide services for males may be one of the reasons that adolescent pregnancy
is such a problem. Adolescent pregnancy needs to be addressed by providing
adequate health care and early education for males and females. High risk
groups for teen pregnancy need to be identified, especially the poor adolescents
whose parents were teenage parents themselves. By using these methods of
intervention the problems surrounding teen pregnancy and adolescent fatherhood
can be reduced.
To Read Further
About Teen Mothers
This site was produced by students taking HDFS
433: The Transition to Adulthood and HDFS
239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback
can be sent to the individual authors or to Nancy
Darling (darling@bard.edu).
Last updated 3/8/01.