Adolescence:
Change and ContinuityAdolescence:
Change and Continuity
In the U.S. today, adolescents spend more time participating in
leisure activities than they spend on school work (Csikszentmihalji and
Larson, 1984). The increased time spent in leisure activities has come
about primarily due to two historical factors:
Compulsory schooling-education became mandatory
Today, compulsory schooling laws in the U.S. require youths to stay in school until age 16. This is a major change from the beginning of the 20th century. During the first quarter of the 1900's, it was the norm for adolescents to leave school between the ages of 12-15 and become full time workers (Steinberg, 1993). A high school education was limited only to children of high status families. But, during the last half of this century, mandatory schooling and exemption from labor force participation has been extended to all classes (Flacks, 1971). With the growth of secondary education throughout the different social and economic systems, adolescents now have more time to spend in leisure activities because of the lower number of hours spent working.
Affluence of Americans following W.W.II
After returning from W.W.II, affluence in America grew. Machinery was being used with the birth of the industrial era and less persons were needed for manual labor. The need for youth to acquire highly developed and specialized skills became important. As industrialization took over, higher education provided a means for adolescents to be competitive and earn jobs based on merit(Flacks, 1971).
This was also the time when "teenagers" were discovered. With adolescents now having more free time, developing into an autonomous age group, and having money from their families to readily spend, advertisers targeted this age group. This trend has continued today (Steinberg, 1993).
Adults started worrying about youths "idle hands" and this began the development of organizations, such as Boy Scouts and organized sports (Modell and Goodman, 1990).
So, one can plainly see that history has had a major impact on the number of hours adolescents spend in leisure activities as well as how adolescents spend their leisure time.
For additional information on the History of Adolescent leisure refer to:
http://www.als.uiuc.edu/leist/resources/concepts/serious.html
40% of adolescents' waking hours are spent in leisure activities
(Steinberg, 1996). What adolescents do and where they go depends on where
they live, what they have access to, who they hang out with, and what their
individual tastes are.
GEOGRAPHIC DIFFERENCES: What adolescents do according to where they live.
Geographic areas might have an impact on how adolescents spend their time.
In general, all adolescents do similar things, such as (Garton, 1991):
Adolescents who live in urban areas may have a wide range of possibilities of things to do, such as: hanging out at the mall or going to a music concert. Urban areas nay have more recreational and leisure facilities available (Garton, 1991). Adolescents may also have more available transportation such as buses and subways.
Rural Areas
Adolescents who live in rural areas may not have a wide range of things to do. They may live miles and miles away from many social opportunities. These teens might not have the transportation to get to places, because they might live so far away. Research says that adolescents living in rural areas tend to participate more in sports. The main source of their leisure is school related functions (Garton, 1991).
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES) DIFFERENCES
Socioeconomic status can affect people in many ways. It could determine where one lives, where one can go, and what one can do. SES can permit and deny access to available leisure activities. SES may directly impact leisure through the different lifestyles, opportunities, values, and models that are available. The indirect influences of SES are noted in such things as home location, school selection, and the provision of equipment and resources for leisure activities (Garton, 1991).
Gender differences are not always constant. Recent research says that there is a strong tendency for boys to prefer sports and vigorous activities, while girls (even though their participation in sports has increased) are more interested in hanging out at friends' houses, hanging out at the mall, or just talking on the phone. Girls tend to sit around and talk and engage in relatively passive activities.
In our society there are gender specific roles placed on us. Girls are supposed to be more communication oriented, while boys are supposed to be independent and non-emotional. Boys are supposed to be strong and aggressive. These social norms have an impact on adolescents. It affects who they are, what they like, and what they do. Society seems to advertise what is acceptable. For example, malls target the idea that girls are supposed to be more interested in fashion and clothes, and society (in general) expects boys to be more interested in sports, both actively and passively (Garton, 1987).
The typical American adolescent spends approximately 29% of their
time in productive activities, 31% in maintenance activities (grooming,
eating, etc...) and 40% in leisure activities. American adolescents spend
a lot more time on leisure and a lot less time on schoolwork than any other
country (Steinberg, 1993).
Although adolescent leisure is perceived as a problem, it rarely produces a social problem. Adolescents bring pre-existing values, beliefs, and expectations to their experiences which influences their decisions and the friends they choose. Parents and educators owe it to adolescents to know, understand, and trust them as well as appreciate their cultural differences. Adults believe many adolescent activities are a waste of time such as cruising the mall, listening to music, hanging-out, etc... Adults expect adolescents to use their free time productively, however leisure is suppose to be a time that is used for purposes other than production. Leisure plays an important role in helping the adolescent develop a sense of identity, explore relationships with each other, and learn about society. Adults and peers can have both a positive and a negative impact on adolescent development through leisure. (Steinberg, 1993)
One of the negative aspects of peer relationships is the obligation to conform in matters of dressing, personal appearance, musical tastes, and leisure activities, but a lack of money and/or transportation can create a problem in these areas. However the positive impact of peers on adolescent development out weighs the negative tremendously. Peer groups are an important base of security outside of the family. Adolescents learn to express empathy, appropriate emotional behavior, power of self-initiation, and mature approaches to solving problems through mutual respect and agreement. Leisure time with peers gives an adolescent opportunities to develop independence skills they will need as adults. They develop self-esteem, social competence, and a self-image. Adolescents can try new things with their peers without harsh consequences and learn from their mistakes (Hendry, Shucksmith, Love, & Glendinning, 1993).
Adults can have a positive or negative impact on adolescent development depending on their parenting and/or authority style. External social factors (parents and educators) are important in determining social and relational behaviors. Social class, limitations (money, transportation, restrictions, etc...) and knowledge of activities available are important factors in determining how successful adolescent development is through leisure. Family is the social institution that has the most significant impact on an adolescent's cognitive and self-concept development, identity achievement, and sex role identification. Parents act as role models, set standards, and give rewards. Adolescents prefer parents' advice over that of their peers in important issues involving values and future decision making. But if parents are rejecting or indifferent, the adolescent will go to his or her peers for advice on important issues. Disagreements develop between the parent and the adolescent as the parent's emotional hold must decrease to allow the adolescent increased independence. (Hendry, Shucksmith, Love, & Glendinning, 1993)
Parental and peer values overlap during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Parents need to trust their adolescents to utilize their values and standards and trust them to make decisions based upon them. Leisure does have a positive impact on the adolescent, in fact it is essential to his or her development.
For more Information please refer to:
http://www.hhdev.psu.edu/research/leisure.htm
What is Rap Music?
Rap music is a rhythmic talking style used to express one's point of view (Morely, 1992). These rhythmic styles are intertwined together by musical beats and lyrics to convey a message from the artists. A study was conducted on young African-American males to assess the effects of exposure to rap music on their attitudes and perceptions(Gatto, Jackson & Johnson, 1995). The adolescents here were exposed to violent rap music videos, nonviolent rap music videos, or no music videos, (control group). The results indicated that the attitudes and perceptions of these adolescents were changed.
Many adolescents all over the world listen to rap music, but the primary focus here is targeted at the African-American culture. Research has shown that both African-American males and females listen to and watch rap music videos (Adams, Ashburn & Johnson, 1995). Within this study African-American males and females were exposed to nonviolent rap music videos which contained images of women in sexually subordinate roles. The results indicated that violent behavior varied among black males and females.
What are the negative effects of rap music/videos?
The answer to this question is what many parents and researchers want to know. There has been extensive research on determining how adolescents react to the negative connotations of rap music/videos. As stated previously, Gatto, Jackson & Johnson, 1995 conducted a study to assess the effects of exposure to rap music on their attitudes and perceptions. Exposure to violence in the music and videos seemed to pose negative reactions in adolescent behavior. This does not mean that adolescents engage in violent behavior, but it does suggest that there is a greater acceptance of the use of violence when adolescents are exposed to violent behavior in the music or the videos.
Negative rap music and videos also pose the question: How does it effect the attitudes towards African-American males and females sexuality (Dyson, 1991)? Rap artists, such as 2 Live Crew, display pornography on the cover labels of their CDs and this produces tension in parents. Negativity such as this is said to lead to teen dating violence against females(Adams, Ashburn & Johnson, 1995). Also, it's a way of degrading African-American females as being viewed as sex objects. Furthermore, we must be aware that such negative exposure to rap music and videos shape the lives of young African-American males and females.
However, there are positive effects of rap music. One, it has helped to turn African-American rhetorical traditions into lucrative art(Dyson, pp. 7, 1991). It also has created employment for the African-American rappers, particularly males. This leads to my final question.
Do warning labels on CDs prevent adolescents from viewing or listening to rap music?
Since 1985, recording companies have been voluntarily adding parental advisory labels to record albums, tapes, or CDs that they judge to be violent, sexually explicit, or potentially offensive (Strasburger, 1995). Such negativity in rap music and videos has created much controversy. The question that arises is whether the labeling would increase or decrease the purchasing of rap music by adolescents. Research shows that adolescents continue to purchase the merchandise because they find the music to be more appealing.
So does rap music influence the behavior of adolescents? I think the answer is mainly left up to the individual who is confronted with the situation. Research does not suggest that rap music stimulates negative behavior in adolescents, however, it does suggest that it makes violent behavior more appealing.
References:
This site was produced by students taking HDFS 433: The Transition to Adulthood and HDFS 239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback can be sent to the individual authors or to Nancy Darling (darling@bard.edu).
Last updated 4/16/01.
