Adolescence:
Change and ContinuityAdolescence:
Change and Continuity
What Is Deafness?
Did you know that twenty-five million people in this world are deaf or hearing impaired(Smith,1996)? Deafness is characterized by being partially or completely incapable of hearing and is sometimes more commonly referred to as a communication disorder rather than a physical disability(Morris,1973). There are four different types of deafness. The first is conductive hearing loss which occurs in the outer ear that prevents sounds from getting in. The second is sensorineural which due to damage in the inner ear, causes difficulty in the ability to distinguish sounds. The third is retro cochlear, which is nerve damage beyond the inner ear and the last type is mixed, a combination between the other three. Hearing loss can be a result of congenital (present at birth), hereditary, infection, or industrial(prolonged or intense noise)causes. How Being Deaf Affects Identity and Self Esteem
Communication for deaf adolescents is very limited. There are two basic forms including the oral method, teaching people to lip read and speak, vs. sign language, speaking with one's hands. These communication barriers present problems within the home between the deaf child and the other family members. Feelings of loneliness arise because these adolescents feel they are being left out. They may also become frustrated while trying to make themselves understood. The communication deficiency between the child and the parent also results in overprotection which can have a huge influence on a child's development of a negative self-esteem and feelings of shame and doubt(Scabbo,1992-93). Instead of supporting their kids to express themselves, the parents tend to try and control their deaf child. The teenager may also start to feel different or special. Instead of gaining an identity as a deaf adolescent, they are taught to behave and act like a hearing person in order to be accepted by others(Scabbo,1992-93). Providing these kids with a schedule will give them a sense of security and therefore a higher self esteem.
How Being Deaf Affects School Achievement
As a child increases in age, their surroundings change from the family to school and neighborhood settings. They start interacting with peers and begin to realize the differences they possess. They then start to compare themselves with the hearing kids and become aware of their weaknesses, causing them to gain a sense of inferiority. In the school setting towards achievement, expectations of deaf students are far below that of their potential. This puts young deaf persons at a major disadvantage in competition for professional, higher paying jobs since they are not given equal opportunities. Another problem for deaf students is the ability to receive the special education programs they might need. An example is the availability of sign language interpreters for their classes. Although the statistics show it is very unlikely for a deaf person to go to college, it is not unheard of. There are a number of schools specifically for the hearing impaired however, the enrollment is very selective.
How Being Deaf Affects Peer Groups
Adolescence can be an awful time for any child especially ones who differ from the norm because at this stage everyone wants to be like everyone else. Adolescence is a time when peers are unintentionally brutal when it comes to forming cliques and accepting anyone who is "different"(Scabbo,1992-93). Deaf adolescents usually have limited peer relationships. Popular meeting places for adolescents such as movie theaters or dance clubs, may not be suitable for the deaf, so peer groups between the hearing and non-hearing are usually segregated.
Websites
The popularity of the Internet is becoming increasingly convenient in
the deaf community. This powerful communication trend is used to share
a vast amount to information and is easily accessible. For more information
on the deaf community thru the web, I have found these web sites as references:
Adolescence is a time for growth and development in life. It is
to be a time of enjoying activities, friends, and life in general. For
adolescents that are blind though this period of time can be trying and
difficult. Adolescents can overcome their blindness and meet the demands
that a sighted community can place on their lives.
Facts
Being blind does not mean that the person cannot see. As a matter of fact there is only a small percentage of people that are totally blind. Most blind people can see light and/or some details but only with difficulty. 75% of the blind population in the United States has a part of usable vision (Bradley-Johnson, 1994).
Self-Esteem & Identity:
Unlike sighted adolescents blind adolescents have a harder time with finding independence. They have to depend more on others to get were they want to go. Sighted adolescents can go off on their own. It is important for a blind adolescent to feel independent. With the feeling of independence comes a higher self-esteem and a better sense of identity. Blind adolescents that have high self-esteem and a strong sense of identity have an eaiser time adapting to their environments than those with low self-esteem and a weaker sense of identity.
Academic Achievement:
Even though learning can be slower for blind adolescents, academic achievement depends on the individual. Blind adolescents need the same curricular content as sighted students. Blind adolescents will need specialized instruction and adapting material to make learning easier and to increase academic achievement. Educating blind adolescents with sighted adolescents can help them compete in society. Just as with sighted students the teacher must reinforce positive and negative behaviors. This helps the blind adolescent adjust to the sighted world.
Peers:
It is important for blind adolescents to have positive peer relationships.
A positive peer relationship helps to improve a blind adolescents self-image
and self-esteem. Peers also give them a sense of being a "normal" adolescent.
Many blind adolescents though find it difficult to socialize with their
sighted peers. This is because in adolescents those that are different
from the norm are not always accepted in the sighted peer groups.
What is ADHD?
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a complex problem that is not easy to diagnose. ADHD is controversial among researchers, teachers, and clinicians due to the difficulty in how to characterize it into a definition everyone can agree on (Baren, 1995). One thing that they agree on are the symptoms that include, inattention, impulsivity, motor restlessness (Evans and Pelham, 1991), and weak performance on complex problem solving and organization (Seidman, 1995). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (The DSM-IV) describes the symptoms that are used to diagnose ADHD. The DSM-IV states under the categories of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity that, if six or more of the symptoms persist for at least six months, then ADHD is diagnosed (Baren, 1995). Many of these symptoms must be present before the age of seven as well.
Adolescents with ADHD in School
Adolescents with this disorder have difficulty performing well in school because they are unable to keep their attention focused for long. Since they are hyperactive, they find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time. Learning in the context of a school setting for adolescents with ADHD is virtually impossible. Studies have found that adolescents with this disorder have more school failure and intellectual impairment than adolescents without ADHD (Seidman, 1995). Researchers generally agree that ADHD affects 3-5% of adolescents in the United States with a 4:1 male-to-female ratio (Handen et al., 1995).
Treatment for ADHD
Treatment for ADHD is administered through medication and behavior modification.
There are several theories that attempt to examine why ADHD exists. Some
researchers have found that ADHD is passed through heredity (Biederman
et al., 1996), and researchers are still searching for a specific gene
that causes ADHD (Alessi et al., 1993). Without a cause, a cure cannot
be found. Meanwhile, as a cause is being persued, the drug Methylphenidate
is being used to aid ADHD patients. This drug has different affects on
different adolescents depending on how severe the adolescent has ADHD (DuPaul
et al., 1994).Ritalin is also used to calm the adolescent's hyperactivity.
Other treatments used are counseling, behavioral therapy, and classroom
interventions (Baren, 1995). An adolescent needs to be monitored in order
to ensure these treatments are effective.
What is it?
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, commonly known as ADHD, is a disorder where children can neither pay attention nor remain still (Steinberg&Meyer, 1995). Attention deficit refers to the inability to keep ones mind on a specific item for a long period of time. Hyperactivity refers to the constant and rapid motion. ADHD is a complicated condition, with motivational, cognitive, and behavioral features. ADHD is found within 3% to 5% of school-aged children and it is found to increase during the adolescent school years.
What are the basic symptoms?
Some researchers say that ADHD is biologically caused while others say that it may be attributed to the reduction of glucose metabolism in the brain. Specifically the areas in the brain that are involved with regulation attention and motor activity (Barkley, et al, 1992).
Are there psychosocial factors?
Children with ADHD are likely to have dysfunctional family problems and more parent-child confrontations rather than a child that does not have ADHD. Also, there seems to be more negative verbalizations and noncompliant behaviors evident in families that have an ADHD child (Cantwell, 1996). In other words, families with an ADHD child experience greater negative conversations and unacceptable behaviors.
Is there treatment for ADHD?
Many doctors treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with a drug known as Ritalin. This drug is considered a stimulant where it increases the ability to concentrate. This usually allows the student to perform better in school. Studies show that the effect of Ritalin decreases over a six-week period. Many doctors combine a program of behavior management with a short-term use of Ritalin and this shows a longer-lasting change.
References:
Briefly, what is ADD?
"ADD is a neurological syndrome whose classic defining triad of symptoms include impulsivity, distractibility, and hyperactivity or excess energy," (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994, p.6). These are known as the primary symptoms of ADD. They can be seen in children, mostly in school, in behaviors such as:
What is meant by 'secondary symptoms'?
Secondary symptoms seem to arise when a child goes a long time without being diagnosed as having ADD or ADHD. He/she may produce unnecessary negative feelings towards him/herself. These symptoms include: "low self-esteem, depression, boredom and frustration with school, fear of learning new things, impaired peer relations, sometimes drug or alcohol abuse, stealing, even violent behavior due to mounting frustration" (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994, p.52). Barkley (1990) estimated 75% of individuals with ADD show signs of depression into adulthood. Biederman, on the other hand, suggested comorbidity to be as high as 25% (Quinn, 1997, p.210 & 214).
Treating secondary symptoms
Education is the best treatment of ADD, but for adolescents, who may not understand all of the concepts involved, they may need to look to adults (parents, teachers, etc.). Understanding the disorder allows individuals to recognize how it affects them, internally, and alter any behaviors or thoughts that are unnecessary.
A good starting point for treatment is psychotherapy. Here a relationship can be formed with a therapist who understands both the neurological and emotional problems associated with ADD. The therapist should supply a feeling of understanding, which "can heal more wounds than any medication or kind words or bits of advice," (Hallowell & Ratey, 1994, p.226).
Primary symptoms can be treated with drugs such as, Ritalin, Dexedrine, Cylert, and recently Pycnogenol. Secondary symptoms are much harder to treat. They do not disappear at the same time, or rate, that the primary symptoms do. Some individuals, unfortunately, struggle with the secondary symptoms into their adult lives.
Finally, in both the evaluation and treatment of ADD, the family is
a key source of intervention (Hinshaw, 1994, p.18).
References and additional information:
Definition of autism
There have been various definitions of autism particularly because it is not well understood. Most often it is referred to as a "spectrum disorder" (Healthtouch, 1997), moderately to severely affecting various behaviors as well as the development of the individual. It is "a general adaptation or personality organization that affects all major aspects of life" (Victor, 1983). The four major diagnoses are Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified, Asperger's Syndrome, and Rett's Syndrome.
Prevalence and incidence
Autism is the "third" most common developmental disorder (Healthtouch, 1997). It has been estimated that 5 out of 10,000 people have autism while another 15 out of 10,000 display behaviors related to the disorder (Healthtouch, 1997). These symptoms include, but are not limited to, rituals, self-stimulatory behaviors, communication delays, and delays in social development.
Social problems
There are many aspects of an individual's life that are affected by this disorder. Delays in social behavior are one of the most debilitating for the individual, especially an adolescent. Among the most critical are delays in communication, social interaction, play, recognition of self, recognition of emotion, reciprocity, and negativism (Healthtouch, 1997; Scholper & Mesibov, 1986).
Since there is a wide range of social problems associated with autism, they have been grouped into "three categories: socially avoidant, socially indifferent, and socially awkward" (Healthtouch, 1997). Those who are socially avoidant retract from all forms of contact. Socially indifferent refer to individuals who do not hide from social contact but do not initiate it. Socially awkward is the term used to describe individuals who work at social relationships but do not have the ability to maintain these relationships due to their various symptoms.
Implications
Adolescence is a time period in which peer relations are a major focus. Much of an adolescent's time is spent away from the family and in peer interactions. Adolescents with autism experience many of these needs including the need for autonomy and being part of a peer group (Gerdtz & Bregman, 1990). Possible deficiencies in social skills may cause increased problems and may require further assistance. It is necessary to consider these problems when working with adolescents with autism. .
References:
Many different definitions of dyslexia have been used by teachers. Terms that are often used interchangeably with dyslexia are "reading disabled" or simply "learning disabled." The World Federation of Neurology defines dyslexia as "a disorder manifested by difficulty in learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and sociocultural opportunity" (1995).
How Does Dyslexia Affect Identity And Self Esteem?
Learning Disabled or not adolescents are concerned about peer relations, employment, sex, school work, and the future, but for teens who are learning disabled have even more doubts. Finding direction in life and their own identity can be especially stressful for people who are "different." Teens who are not able to achieve independence and self-reliance by themselves will still need the same resources that supported them in the past: family support, school programs, counselors, and opportunities to interact with their peers. If the LD adolescent has never received counseling or therapy of some kind prior, adolescents may be a time that therapy (individual, family, or group) may be an appropriate time for the individual to strengthen their identity and self esteem.
How Does Dyslexia Affect School and Achievement?
Dyslexic students have normal to high intelligence quotients. Most often the biggest obstacle they have to overcome is the method by which they learn. Students can receive alternative learning methods through resource rooms that supplements normal curriculum. Or they can get specialized instruction in adapted classes. If students are in special education classes separate from peers special attention should be paid to issues of self esteem and peer interactions because of the extreme feeling of being different.
Another option for LD students is vocational training. In Vocational training students will learn a specific life skill that they will be able to apply in the future.
With proper support and guidance, the dyslexic student can reach as far academically as their perseverance allows. It is not uncommon for LD students to attain high school diplomas and go on to two and four year college degree programs. Support by the school system and parents will allow for the student to achieve as successfully as possible.
How Is Interaction with Peers Affected by Dyslexia?
Learning disabled youths may or may not be socially skilled to interact with their peers. Some may be teased because of the awkward way in which they present themselves. As with other skills that LD students need specialized instruction in, so too do they sometimes need help in learning social skills. Social skills are "cognitive and overt behaviors a person uses in interpersonal interactions can range from simple nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact and head nods to the complex verbal behavior of offering a compromise that will meet everyone's needs" (Schumaker, Deshler 1995). It is possible for LD students to interact with their peers in social situations in a "normal" fashion after having a specialized instructional sequence that focuses on social performance.
For Information on Dyslexia . . .
What is it?
Posttraumatic stress disorder is an emotional disorder that arises after a traumatic event. This disorder is enduring and distressing. PTSD can occur following exposure to a severe helplessness or fear-inducing threat. The victim of the trauma re-experiences it, and they develop a numbing of their emotional responsiveness (Durand & Barlow, 1997). PTSD can occur when an individual has actually experienced, witnessed, or has been confronted with the event. The types of trauma particularly associated with adolescence are abuse and rape.
Causes of posttraumatic stress disorder
Developing PTSD is an extremely complex issue. Developing the disorder depends on the intensity of the trauma. Along with every other disorder, there are biological and psychological vulnerabilities that increase the chances of developing the disorder. Adolescents are at a greater risk of developing the disorder if anxiety runs in the family. Social and cultural influences also play an important role in developing PTSD. If an adolescent has a strong a supportive social network, then he/she is much less likely to develop the disorder (Durand & Barlow, 1997).
Types of trauma
Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder
One of the first symptoms of the disorder is re-experiencing the traumatic event including intrusive images, reenactment behavior, and dreams. Many adolescents develop an avoidance of thoughts, feelings, locations, or situations following the traumatic experience. Many adolescents experience sleep disturbance, irritability, and difficulty concentrating (Pynoos, 1990).
Treatment of adolescents with PTSD
Treatment of adolescents is difficult, because they are in the process of becoming an adult. The adolescent may need to re-experience the concept in real life terms in order to understand it. An adult may be able to understand the concept through analysis (Everstine & Everstine, 1993). When adolescents are re-exposed to the trauma in therapy, they develop effective coping strategies in order to learn to tolerate the trauma. Many of the symptoms are treated with behavioral procedures, such as sleep and relaxation tapes. Medications may be used in addition to therapy (Everstine & Everstine, 1993).
Conclusion
Adolescence is a complex stage of development, in which there are many biological, cognitive, and emotional forces. Adolescents are reaching for adulthood, and this disorder makes an adolescent regress. Some traumatized teens engage in such things as vandalism, stealing, or using drugs. This type of acting out behavior may arouse suspicion that a traumatic event has occurred. The best way to help these adolescents is to be very supportive, and the adolescent should have a strong social network.
References:
What is Depression?
Depression is an internal sadness combined with overwhelming feelings of hopelessness, despair, helplessness, low self-worth and loss of control. Depression in adolescents may stem from a wide variety of situations that involve social interactions such as, failure loss of a love object, rejection and so on, but in some cases depression can be hereditary or caused by a biochemical imbalance (Hipple and Cimbolic, 1979). It often occurs in depressive episodes which can be as short as two weeks at a time or much longer and severe.
Symptoms of Depression
Depressed adolescents often seem to sulk, spend a lot of time alone, get in trouble at school, use drugs and/or alcohol, and neglect their appearances. They may also seem irritable, negative, cold, aggressive and feel misunderstood. Without a proper diagnosis and treatment a depressed teen can lead to school failure, substance addictions, chronic unhappiness and even suicide.
Recently, the third edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (or the DSM-III ) uses adult criteria for diagnosing depressive disorders in adolescents. The DSM-III uses the following guidelines for diagnosing depressive episodes:
In moderate depressive concerns:
References:
Introduction:
Statistics show that among college students, ages 18-22, suicide is the third leading cause of death. For some universities, typically the more prestigious ones, the suicide rank is even higher. How can we tell if someone is at risk? What are some of the warning signs? More importantly, what are some factors that will protect these students from the risk of suicide?
Warning Signs and Characteristics:
For each successful suicide there are roughly fifty other failed attempts. There are some characteristics to look for in someone who may be suicidal. First, academic achievement is not a clear indicator. However, the students GPA tends to fall in the semester prior to the suicide attempt. The student tends to be socially inept. He spends most of his time alone in his room. Also, the student tends to have very little athletic interest and does not participate in any extracurricular activities. Some other warning signs are an inability to sleep or eat. The student will often report unusual health problems prior to the attempt.
Risk Factors:
There are some risk factors that are commonly seen among suicidal students. The following is a list of risk factors to look for.
The following is a list of things that will help to keep a student from turning to suicide.
According to Finch, "Any suicidal attempt on the part of a teen-ager should be taken seriously." With that in mind it would seem logical to say that any strong exhibition of suicidal risk factors or characteristics should also be taken seriously. Hopefully this paper will give people a better understanding of what to look for when concerned about suicidal tendencies.
References:
What is Vertigo?
"Vertigo is a sensation of spinning and a feeling that oneself or the environment is unstable" ( Brodwin, Tellez, and Brodwin 1995 p. 432). The individual may experience a loss of balance or a feeling of uneasiness. An example one might use to describe this feeling is when you are on a small boat out at sea and the waves cause the boat to rock back and forth.
What are the causes of Vertigo?
There are many causes of Vertigo that could include: disturbances in the blood circulation, changes in cardiac output, disturbances within the inner ear and a variety of central nervous system conditions. Vertigo can also be the symptom of a minor illness or medical condition such as allergies or even an ear infection.
How severe is Vertigo?
Vertigo can happen once to a person, or can affect them everyday for the rest of their lives. The symptoms of Vertigo: which are dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and headaches, can change from one episode to the next episode. The severity of these symptoms can also change each time an individual gets Vertigo.
How do adolescents handle having Vertigo?
Adolescents have many challenges to face and if Vertigo is one of these challenges an adolescent can feel nervous, anxious, or scared. If the adolescent has a minor case of Vertigo it will probably not effect the individual the same way as in a more severe case. As adolescent may feel anger, resentment or become depressed when they realize that they could get Vertigo without and warning at any time. I know this to be true because I have Vertigo.
A true life story
I first found out that I have Vertigo in August of 1995. I woke up one Sunday morning and when I opened my eyes I could not see straight. I got out of bed and then realized that I was extremely dizzy. I went back to bed and called my mother into the room. Like any parent, her first response was to ask if I had anything to drink the night before. When I assured her that was not the case, she took me to the doctor. He said that it was an inner ear infection that was causing me to have Vertigo. He said to get rest and he gave me a prescription, Meclizine, to help stop the dizziness. He told me that there was nothing else he could do. Unfortunately, there is no cure or no medicine that will help prevent or cure Vertigo.
How Vertigo has changed my adolescent years
As a result, my life during adolescence has really changed. I am more caution, fearful, and worried about doing certain things. I have stopped going on amusements rides for fear that the spinning will bring back Vertigo. I can not go on a fishing boat because the motion gets me feeling dizzy. I have had to carry Meclizine around in my purse wherever I go for fear of reliving that feeling of dizziness. However, there is hope. New drugs and studies about this disability are being done everyday. Many more people and doctors are recognizing this illness and trying to help cure it. Hopefully, someday soon there will be no need for adolescents to worry or fear this problem.
References
Last updated 3/8/01.