Adolescence:
Change and ContinuityAdolescence:
Change and Continuity
What is adolescent delinquency?
Adolescent delinquency is a concept that everyone should know, because it affects the lives of all individuals daily as taxpayers, parents, and/or classmates. Adolescent delinquency is an act that violates the law of the United States. There are illegal actions which apply only to individuals under the age of 18 such as truancy, curfews, and alcohol use. These actions should not be taken lightly, because they can and often do lead to other criminal activities(Bartollas, 1993). Adolescents compose approximately 12% of the population and are held accountable for 17.1% of total arrests(Lab and Whitehead, 1990). This statistic shows that adolescent delinquency is prevalent, and it should be an issue of serious concern.
Who is the adolescent delinquent?
Any adolescent can be an offender. A suburban, white girl is not exempt from committing delinquent acts. However, statistics show that girls are arrested less frequently than boys and that lower class youths rate higher in delinquent activities than any other class. Also, non-whites are more likely to be arrested than white adolescents(Empey and Stafford, 1991).
What crimes do adolescents commit?
| 1) Breaking Curfew | 6) Burglary |
| 2) Running Away | 7) Larceny-Theft |
| 3) Arson | 8) Stolen Property |
| 4) Motor Vehicle Theft | 9) Robbery |
| 5) Vandalism | 10) Underage Drinking |
| Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation(1991) Cited in Bartollas, 1993 | |
What are some predictors of adolescent delinquency?(Bartollas, 1993)
What is delinquency?(McCord, 1993)
There are individual characteristics found in some children at a relatively young age that are often predictive of early delinquency that continues throughout adulthood (Rosenberg, Schooler, and Schoenbach, 1989).
Although long-term delinquency may be a symptom of a psychological problem, some ways found to help prevent the early onset of delinquent behaviors are:
McCarthy, John D. and Dean R. Hoge. (1984). The dynamics of self-esteem and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 2. 396-410.
McCord, Joan. (1993). Problem Behaviors. Pp. 414-430 in S. Feldman and G. Elliot (Eds.), At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescent. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
Rosenberg, Morris, Carmi Schooler,, and Carrie Schoenbach. (1989). Self-esteem and adolescent problems: Modeling reciprocal effects. American Sociological Review, 6. 1004-1018.
Scholte, Evert M. (1992). Identification of children at risk at the police station and the prevention of delinquency. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 4. 354-369.
A Typology of Runaway and Homeless Youth in the United States
For many adolescents running away from home is not a new phenomenon. During the last few centuries, many young adolescents ran away from home seeking adventure or to rebel from a restrictive home life. Surviving on the streets and securing a job during this era was easier due to a lack of technology and an abundance of manual jobs. During the 1960s, many youth left home for adventure and to become involved in the rebellious movement of those times.
When looking back on homeless youth, living on the streets today has become more dangerous including increasing sexual exploitation and drug use. The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act (Title III of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act) define runaways as "juveniles who leave and remain away from home without parental permission." Among this group of runaways there are several different categories, which may be overlapping and indistinct:
Situational Runaways make up the largest group of runaway youth who leave home for a few days with a small percentage of these youth becoming chronic runaways. Many young people find themselves on the streets or in a shelter for only a few days due to a disagreement with parents and return home shortly. A small percentage repeats this behavior and stay away for longer periods of time. These youth become labeled as runaways and remain away from home due to more serious problems at home, such as abuse, neglect, or serious problems with their parents. Many of these youth become permanent fixtures of the homeless culture and must rely on themselves for survival and are often victims of street crime.
Throwaways are defined as youth who have left home because their parents have abandoned them, asked them to leave, or subjected them to extreme levels of abuse or neglect. It is common for many in this group to have spent time with relatives or had periods of residence in foster care.
Systems Youth can be described as children who have little if no family contact and have spent most of their childhood in foster care or other institutions. They have runaway from their intolerable conditions to become part of the runaway subculture and usually have a history of running away.
The Victimization of Homeless Adolescents
Kurtz et al. (1991) found that homeless adolescents face a daunting battery of problems, including depression, low self-esteem, alcohol and/or drug abuse, antisocial behavior, trouble with law enforcement officials, survival sex, pregnancy, prostitution and sexually transmitted disease (1). Many also suffer at the hands of pimps and drug dealers, which increases the possibility that they will contract the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Adolescents are often shunned from welfare hotels, which forces them to live on the streets. Many homeless adolescents, lacking a parental figure, soon find themselves in places where they are most likely to find HIV positive sex partners and be introduced to drug use. Rotheram-Borus, Koopman and Ehrhardt (1991) report that one quarter of the homeless adolescents in Los Angeles and New York trade sex for money or drugs (2). Kraal, Molnar, Booth, and Watters, (1997) assess survey data examined from 775 runaway and homeless adolescents recruited from street settings and youth agencies during 1992/1993. Nearly all (98%) reported having engaged in sexual intercourse, of whom 49% first had intercourse by the age of 13. Condom use during all vaginal intercourse in the previous months was reported by 42%. Among males, 23% indicated that they had exchanged sex fog money, as did 14% of the females. Ninety-seven per cent had used alcohol or drugs and 21% had injected drugs. Overall, 75% reported having had sex while under the influence of alcohol or drugs (3).
Where are homeless families and adolescents living?
Homeless families experience the disintegration of physical, spiritual, mental and emotional bonds. Parents must often decide between life on the streets as an intact family unit or separation into various shelters. Shelter personnel assume the responsibility for determining bedtimes, mealtimes, menus and other elements of daily routines, consequently undermining parents' roles (Heflin & Rudy, 1991) (4).
Furthermore, Linehan (1992) argues that shelters are often overcrowded and psychologically destructive to those that stay there. Shelters (commonly called "welfare hotels") are usually deteriorated buildings located in oppressed areas. In the worst cases, the homeless spend their days and nights in deserted alleys, cars or large trash dumpsters. Crowded, chaotic environments exacerbate personal pressures and stresses, frequently leading to conflicts or violence between parents and children (5).
What do homeless adolescents do for money?
The work in which these youth engage includes "casual work," "marginal occupations," and the "informal sector." The informal sector is characterized by small, competitive individual, or family owned firms and petty retail trade and service activities that circumvent child labor legislation and other constraints (6). Activities may include selling candy and cigarettes, hauling garbage, washing windshields, guarding cars, and carrying luggage. With poverty and lack of opportunity in the formal sector, youth seek out the informal sector for survival and employment. Lack of access into the formal sector puts youth at risk of not gaining benefits of the formal sector and places them at risk of being exploited and put into dangerous, violent, and/or illegal activities and circumstances (7).
Street youth are invariably involved in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) pandemic on an international scale. Data are accumulating indicating the high risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in street youth. Youth are vulnerable to sexual exploitation, prostitution, and intravenous substance use. Many S.A.M. members are collaborating with several international organizations, including CHILDHOPE, World Health Organization, Street Kids International, and the Pan American Health Organization in order to mount a coordinated approach to this problem (8-10).
The Growing Trend of Homelessness
Homeless adolescents, like homeless families, are increasing in number. Kurtz, Jarvis and Kurtz (1991) have identified five major groups of homeless adolescents: 1) members of homeless families; 2) runaway adolescents who leave home to escape physical and sexual abuse; 3) throwaways, adolescents who were pushed out of their homes by parents or guardians; 4) system kids who escaped from intolerable foster care settings; and 5) street kids, often members of an immigrant minority group (11).
Many people still think of homeless transients as alcoholic and/or mentally disabled loners. Actually, the current homeless population consists of single adults, families, battered women and runaway adolescents. Their only characteristic in common is the lack of a fixed, adequate and permanent residence. Social and economic factors and other circumstances beyond the individual's control have led to a gradual increase in family homelessness (Rafferty & Shinn, 1991) (12).
During a conference, members of the National Association of State Coordinators for the Education of Children and Youth cited eight basic causes of homelessness: 1) lack of affordable housing, 2) unemployment, 3) deinstitutionalization, 4) divorce / abandonment, 5) substance abuse, 6) natural catastrophe, 7) physical abuse and 8) eviction (Johnson & Wand, 1991). Whatever the causes may be, the result is an increasing population of homeless families with children (Stronge & Tenhouse, 1990) (13).
Policy Issues and Programs
Homeless youth benefit from programs that meet immediate needs first, and then help them address other aspects of their lives. Programs that minimize institutional demands and offer a range of services have had success in helping homeless youth regain stability (Robertson, 1996) (14). Educational outreach programs, assistance in locating job training and employment, transitional living programs, and health care especially designed for and directed at homeless youth are also needed. In the long term, homeless youth would benefit from many of the same measures that are needed to fight poverty and homelessness in the adult population, including the provision of affordable housing and employment that pays a living wage. In addition to these basic supports, the child welfare system must make every effort to prevent children from ending up on the streets.
References
What do adolescent delinquents look like?
There are two types of adolescent delinquents. Some have an early onset of delinquency which continues on through adolescence and frequently into adult criminal lives. Other delinquents have no trouble with the law before adolescence. They become involved in delinquency during their teenage years, but rarely continue this behavior into adulthood (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 1997). These two group have significantly different characteristics, including family traits and gender. Adolescents can be divided into these two groups with several factors predicting their delinquency.
What do the early adolescent delinquents look like?
This group of delinquents is mostly male, and more genetically influenced (Steinberg, 1996). They have histories of aggressive and violent behavior beginning as early as age eight. A number of them suffer from attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in childhood. This causes aggressiveness and an inability to concentrate. A significant amount also have what researchers consider a hostile attributional bias. This means they interpret ambiguous situations with their peers as actually being hostile. This leads them to be unpopular among their peers and have problems in school. These early onset offenders often come from disorganized families with hostile, neglectful parents (Wicks-Nelson 7 Israel, 1997). These parents failed to instill in their children proper standards of behavior. The families also tend to be of a low socioeconomic status and have experienced divorce. Adolescent delinquents who begin at an early age commit more serious and violent crimes during their delinquency. They are also more likely to become chronic offenders and continue on with their delinquent behavior after adolescence.
What do the late onset group look like?
This group of delinquents contains an equal amount of males and females, and is more environmentally influenced. These adolescents have learned the norms and standards of society, so they are far better socialized. To this adolescent, the peer group is essential (Stattin & Magnusson, 1995). They tend to be popular among their peers and their delinquent activities usually occur in peer situations. Thus, delinquent activities often coincide with the amount of peer pressure applied. These adolescents often come from families where the parents do not carefully monitor them. This distant relationship makes the child more susceptible to peer pressure. Parental neglect also leads to associations with deviant peers (Steinberg, 1996). Most of these adolescents' crimes do not develop into serious criminality and they are unlikely to violate the law after adolescence.
All adolescent delinquents cannot be put into the same category. There are two distinct groups which have different characteristics, depending on the age of onset. These must be taken into consideration to understand the concept of delinquency in adolescence.
For additional information:
Definition: Delinquency is the failure to do what duty or law requires.
Factors identified as contributing to delinquent behavior: Delinquents sometimes feel justified in breaking the rules because the system is so much against them (Schmolling, Youkeles, and Burger, 1993).Socialized subgroup-The socialized subgroup describes youths who associate with a delinquent subgroup and accept the values of that subgroup. This category is defined by characteristics such as (1) has bad companions, (2) steals in company with others, (3) belongs to a gang, or (4) stays away from home and school. These individuals are also described as experiencing little distress or psychopathology, and little difficulty in relating to peers (Wicks-Nelson and Israel, 1997).
How serious is delinquency?
As Table 8-4 illustrates, there is little doubt that juvenile crime is a serious problem (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1994).
| TABLE 8-4 Cases Disposed by Juvenile Courts for Youths Ages 10-17 | |||
| Reasons for Referral | 1983 | 1987 | 1991 |
| Violent offences | 55,000 | 67,000 | 103,000 |
| Property offences | 451,000 | 498,000 | 577,000 |
| Delinquency offences | 524,000 | 590,000 | 658,000 |
| Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1994(114th edition). Washington, DC, 1994. | |||
Summary: The general public does not fully realize that juveniles, defined by most states as persons under 18, commit a large percentage of serious crimes. During the mid-1980's, persons under 18 accounted for about one out of every three arrests for robbery, about half of all arrests for property crimes, and about one of six arrests for rape. Each year, more than a million juveniles are arrested by the police in this country (Inciardi, 1987).
References :
Further Reading
What is conduct disorder?
Conduct disorder is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others and important age appropriate social norms (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 1997). It is often proceeded by oppositional defiant disorder or attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder that worsens through childhood and becomes re-diagnosed as conduct disorder in adolescence. Conduct disorder includes a wide range of aggressive behaviors such as;
Prevalence of conduct disorder (Earls, 1994).
Diagnosis of conduct disorder (Frances, First, Pincus, & Widiger, 1994).
The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder requires that three or more types of these behaviors have occurred in the last twelve months and at least one type occurring in the last six months;
Treatment of conduct disorder
The following list includes some of the treatments available for treating conduct disorder, but it is not comprehensive. To read more information on the treatment of conduct disorder, please refer to the reference list at the end of the paper.
Parent tips for managing children with conduct disorde
Conclusion
Conduct disorder is on of the most commonly referred problems among adolescents. Aggression, non-compliance, and anti-social behavior characterize it. Great improvements can be made with treatment such as, parent training.
References
What is Conduct Disorder?
Individuals and professionals use various terms to describe conduct disorder. Parents and care givers often describe these children as aggressive, oppositional, disruptive and delinquent. Many professionals use criteria set by the American Psychological Association's Diagnostic Statistical Manual - IV (DSM-IV) to describe and diagnosis conduct disorder. This text sets diagnostic criteria for psychological disorders across the life span.
The DSM-IV recognizes four categories of overt behavior seen in children and adolescents with this disorder. These categories are aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft and serious violations of rules. Each category has a specific list of behaviors. To view a more complete list of the DSM-IV's criteria contact www.mentalhealth.com/dis1/p21-ch02.html. Three behaviors from this detailed list must occur during a one year period and one behavior must have occurred in the past six months to be clinically diagnosed with conduct disorder. According to Wicks-Nelson and Israel (1997), "An essential feature of the diagnosis...is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates the basic rights of others and major age appropriate societal norms" (pg. 178).
Is Conduct Disorder Linked to Juvenile Delinquency?
Literature exists that connects conduct disorder to juvenile delinquency and future adult criminality. Durand and Barlow (1997) state that, "the lifelong pattern of antisocial behavior experienced by this group is evident in the fact that young children who display antisocial behavior are likely to continue to show these behaviors as they grow older" (pg. 385). Boyle and Offord (1990) state that, "...about 50% of children with conduct disorder...will exhibit antisocial behavior as adults" (pg. 227). A study conducted by Jennifer L. White and colleagues deals with possible predictors of conduct disorder and adolescent delinquency. White et al. (1990) found that, "...children who exhibit stable and pervasive antisocial behavior at age 11 appear to be at greatest risk for recidivistic juvenile delinquency at age 15" (pg. 520).
Research suggests the existence of numerous causes for juvenile delinquency. Child abuse and neglect have been linked to delinquency (Widom, 1991; Zingraff, Leiter, Myers & Johnsen, 1993), as well as, an adolescent's attitude towards attaining social status and success (Hurrelmann & Engel, 1992). Conduct disorder should not be seen as an absolute path to juvenile delinquency. However, conduct disorder is a risk factor for juvenile delinquency.
For Further Readings:
What is juvenile delinquency?
Juvenile delinquency refers to conduct which violates the law only when committed by children. Truancy, running away, and petty theft are examples of juvenile delinquency ( Whitehead, 1990). This definition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
Who is a juvenile?
What kind of court processes do these juveniles go through?
In juvenile court, what can the judge decide?
The judicial process
For a juvenile to receive the best and most fair treatment from their child welfare agency and court, the following must take place:
The involved personnel
In our democratic society, the laws in each state and their lower courts are enforced by varying bodies of government officials. However, there are certain areas of the law that are created for children's interests. They compose a major network within the justice system (Bremner, 1974). The most obvious of the network includes a judge. In addition to the judge, a probation officer, child welfare agency or social service agency, and depending on the case, a physician, psychologist, and a psychiatrist. According to the specifics of the case, a representative from the intended treatment facility will also attend court.
In addition to the network of government aids, certain states now include child advocates. A child advocate or advocacy program ensures that human services and the courts become responsive and accountable to children (Paul et al., 1977). Child advocates see children as individuals with a potential for growth that is influenced by their interactions in their environment. Child advocacy is seen as a way to negotiate for the child when they are unable to do it for themselves (Paul et al., 1977).
Available facilities
References:
What types of correctional facilities are delinquents usually sent to after
committing a crime (Thornton 1992)?
What are some differences between these types of facilities?
Where are most juveniles held among these institutions (Thornton 1992)?
| public juvenile facilities | number of facilities | number of juveniles |
| Detention Center | 422 | 18,041 |
| Shelters | 63 | 646 |
| Reception-diagnostic center | 19 | 1,424 |
| Training Schools | 201 | 27,823 |
| Boot and Work camps/others | 395 | 8,216 |
Do these institutions have any influence on rehabilitating delinquents?
The purpose for corrective institutions is to rehabilitate youths so that they can lead productive lives when they leave institutions, thereby lowering their chance of returning (Joseph, 1995). Although some treatments in some institutions have an effect on certain adolescents, most have little (if any) effect on decreasing deviant behavior. Most of these treatments employed in institutions do not focus on the main problems of delinquent adolescents, such as family dysfunction, low income, little education, and many others (Thornton 1992). For this reason, many treatments are unsuccessful.
For additional information:
What are boot camps?
Boot camps are a relatively new addition to the intermediate sanctions menu. They consist of relatively short period of incarceration in a quasi- military environment, followed by a period of supervision in the community. In 1992, Congress authorized the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to establish two model juvenile boot camps emphasizing education and other services. The growth of these such programs are due, in part, to the positive response of the citizens who like seeing offenders toeing the line, and by legislators who represent them.
Why boot camps for juvenile offenders?
"In some respects, the harsh image of a boot camp regimen appears at odds with a juvenile justice system that, at least in theory, tends to emphasize 'rehabilitation' over punishment or public safety". However, boot camps offer a particularly attractive package--the chance to pursue rehabilitative goals in an environment that does not appear to coddle delinquents.
Who are boot camps designed for?
Most States limit boot camp programs to first time offenders who did not have outstanding felony detainers or warrants. Boot camp programs appear to have a focus more easily identified with adults than juveniles. Despite this, in many states young offenders under the age of 18 are considered adults and have been placed within the adult boot camp population.
What are the goals and philosophies?
There are three primary reasons for implementing correctional boot camp programs: reducing crowding, reducing costs, and lowering recidivism. Other goals include developing work skills, providing a safe prison environment, deterrence, education, rehabilitation, and drug treatment. Programs goals may differ.
Do juvenile boot camps really work?
For the most part, juvenile corrections practitioners have been slow to embrace the boot camp program concept. They feel juveniles need an atmosphere of challenge and experimental learning rather than military drills, ceremony and exercise. However, because boot camp programs have support from the public, some juvenile justice agencies are feeling pressure to develop and implement them.
What lies ahead for the future of juvenile boot camps?
Some States are combining elements of the boot camp program philosophy with experiential or adventure programming and are relabeling the programs with names like "stress challenge." Other States are looking for ways to translate the strict adult boot camp philosophy into programs that will work well with juveniles. In any case an effective intervention must take place to prevent first-time offenders from penetrating further into the juvenile justice system and especially to prevent juvenile offenders from graduating and ending up in the adult system.
References
What is drug use?
Drugs are any substances that alter the central nervous system and states of consciousness (Hanson, 1995). Drug use most commonly starts out with nicotine, then goes to alcohol and illicit drugs, such as marijuana, cocaine, and LSD. Individuals engage in drug use during the weekends and some evenings during the week (Dusek, 1993). Substance abuse is taking drugs to the limit so they cause social or medical harm to the person. The frequency of drug use increases and one begins to maintain their own supplies. At this stage, the person may engage in drug use alone as well as with friends. Minor conflicts may arise with parents, school staff, and the police.
How many adolescents use drugs?
Why do adolescents use drugs?
Does drug use promote another type of delinquency?
Cohen, who wrote Delinquent Boys:The Culture of the Gang(1955), believed that there is a correlation between delinquent behavior and drug use as well as drug abuse, primarily in lower-class peer groups(Hanson, 1995). Drug use can be associated with crime. Drugs may activate criminal behavior, especially if they are taken to help the person commit the crime. For instance, money to buy drugs may be gained through crime. Drugs have been associated with gang organizations and other such related activities. Some gangs deal drugs and use this money to support their activities.
Prevention/Treatment:
Two major ways of preventing drug use is by educating the public about drug use and structuring the environment to eliminate factors so the availability of drugs will be limited. Education in school systems and within the community are essential to prevent drug abuse from occurring. One way is to give positive alternatives to adolescents. More emphasis is placed on extracurricular activities, volunteer services, recreational activities, and participation in cultural events. Detox and abstinence programs are still used to get the addict to stop totally or at least reduce the use of drugs.
Conclusions:
Drug use is most commonly seen in adolescents. Adolescents use drugs for a variety of reasons. Usually, those that engage in drug use do so for social use, which takes place with friends. However, it can lead to various types of delinquency as well as promote other kinds of delinquency. Methods of prevention and treatment are useful and can be quite successful. If these methods are incorporated into schools, communities, and homes, drug use can decrease greatly and lead an individual to abstinence.
For additional information on substance abuse please view these other websites:
Adolescence is a known time for experimentation with many different things.
Alcohol and drugs are two of these. It is important to keep in mind that not
all adolescents use drugs and alcohol in a regular and problematic way. Most
just experiment or use occasionally (Steinberg, 1993). There are risk factors
for problematic use and those that use alcohol and drugs in a regular and deviant
manner might be subject to these.
What are the major risk factors?
In Steinberg's text, Adolescence, he has identified four main sets of risk factors which could be attributed to substance abuse problems. They are:
Transition-proneness
Transition-proneness is a period of time when adolescents are more sensitive to the influences around them (Jessor and Jessor, 1977). Deviant behavior, including drug and alcohol use, are especially likely to happen during these sensitive times. Transition-proneness is characterized by several things (Steinberg, 1993):
Personality Characteristics
Adolescents who display certain personality characteristics seem to be more prone to developing substance abuse problems. According to Shedler and Block (1990), these include:
Family Relationships
Adolescents who abuse drugs and alcohol tend to have parents who are extremely permissive, meaning that they place very few demands on their child and give them a lot of freedom. Parents that are neglectful or uninvolved are also putting their adolescent at risk for drug and alcohol use (Baumrind, 1991). There are two other factors that could put adolescents at risk of substance abuse. One is that many of these adolescents with substance abuse problems come from families in which one parent or both use drugs. In this way, the adolescents are exposed to the drug use and made to think that it is okay. Second, the parents may not object to their adolescent's use of drugs and therefore send a message that it is okay to use drugs and alcohol.
Peer Relations
Finally, adolescents who use drugs are much more likely to have friends that also use drugs. There are two reasons for this. First, the adolescent may be influenced by these friends to try alcohol and drugs and to continue to use them. Second, the adolescent may be drawn to these friends because of their common drug use.
Conclusions:
Although many adolescents experiment with drugs and alcohol, it is important to keep in mind that only a small percentage of them actually abuse them (Steinberg, 1993). These risk factors are possible guidelines as to who will develop an abuse problem. It is possible that those who have these risk factors present in their lives will not develop a substance abuse problem. It is also possible that those who do not have these risk factors present in their lives will
develop a substance abuse problem.
For additional information, visit these websites:
The family plays an important role in the development of childrens' attitudes
and behaviors. Family influences are strongly associated with drug and alcohol
use in adolescents (Dielman, Leech, & Loveland-Cherry, 1995).
How does parental use influence adolescent drug and alcohol use?
Adolescents learn their drinking behaviors from watching and imitating their parents. Parents who use drugs and alcohol are more likely to have adolescents who use drugs and alcohol (Peterson, Hawkins, Abbott, & Catalano, 1994). Adolescents who reported that their parents drank heavily had higher alcohol use in early adolescence than those who had parents who did not drink heavily (Weinberg, Dielman, Mandell, & Shope, 1994).
Relationship between parents and adolescent drug and alcohol use(Halebsky, 1987):
How does parental attitudes and norms influence adolescent drug and alcohol use?
When parents' view drug and alcohol use as normal in their own lives there is a higher rate of initiation, escalation, and continued use in those adolescents. Also parents who are lenient about adolescent drug and alcohol use have adolescents that are more likely to be users. Parental norms can be communicated indirectly to adolescents through how parents involve their children in their own drug or alcohol use. For example, letting them pour or serve alcoholic drinks has been found to contribute to adolescent alcohol use (Peterson et al., 1994). Adolescents who had never smoked marijuana reported that their parents would strongly disapprove if they used marijuana. Those who did smoke marijuana were less likely to report that their parents would disapprove of their marijuana use (Dielman et al., 1995).
How does parenting style influence adolescent drug and alcohol use?
The relationship between parents and adolescents also influences drug and alcohol use. The quality of parental socialization is an important factor since parental closeness and open communication has been found to discourage drug and alcohol use (Barnes, Farrell, & Banerjee, 1994).
Parenting style factors associated with high drug and alcohol use in adolescents includes (Peterson et al., 1994):
It is important for parents to discuss the negative aspects of drug and alcohol use with their adolescents. Also parents should express their own views on drug and alcohol use and explain what they expect from adolescents in regard to if they use or not (Peterson et al., 1994).
For additional information:
Introduction
Over the past several years our government has been pressured into taking on the cigarette industry. Along with giving the FDA the power to regulate cigarettes, the government has been concentrating on stopping tobacco companies from targeting the adolescent population as customers. We have also seen a crack down on the illegal sales of cigarettes to minors, previously an unenforced law. This paper will give a brief overview of the relationship between cigarettes and adolescents.
What is the law?
States are required to adopt laws that prohibit the sale of tobacco to anyone under 18. All states are expected to enforce these laws by conducting random compliance inspections (Jason et al., 1996). The goal for each state is to reduce illegal sales to less than 20% and at the end of the year submit an annual report on their efforts. The penalty for not complying with the government is the loss of substance abuse funds. All these regulations are found in the Synar Amendment, which was implemented in 1996.
How many adolescents smoke?
A study conducted in 1994 by Cummings gave these results:
Why shouldn't adolescents smoke?
All this leads us to the questions of why is the government being pressured into cracking down on illegal cigarette sales, what's the big deal about a teenager smoking cigarettes. It all starts with this fact: over 400,000 Americans die every year from smoking related diseases (Jason et al., 1996). Cigarettes seem to be responsible for health problems in the lungs and heart, but most of these problems occur after years and years of smoking. So most adolescents do not immediately have any health problems caused by smoking. The problem is that the addictive power of nicotine makes cigarette smoking the most common form of drug addiction (Jason et al., 1996). It should not surprise us that 90% of adults began smoking during their adolescent years (Jason et al., 1996). Adolescents shouldnÕt smoke because starting now will most likely lead them to smoking for longer than they might think. A longitudinal study by Pierce and Gilpin (1996) showed that an adolescent who starts to smoke at either 16 or 17 will continue to smoke for 16 years if male and 20 years if female.
Another problem that may be associated with smoking, besides physical aliments, is mental health. A study on adolescents done by Patton (1996) set out to see if smoking is associated with depression and anxiety within this age group. Results showed that while smoking may not cause depression or anxiety, it may be related to being depressed. Teens may use smoking as a way of coping with depression or anxiety because of itÕs so called soothing effects. Patton concluded smoking almost seems like a symptom of anxiety or depression in a large number of adolescents.
For Further Reading:
A good site for mor detailed informaiton and preventive programs is website of Non-Smokers of America organization. The address is www.no-smoke.org/ed-prog.htm1
What is binge drinking?
Binge Drinking is a very prevalent problem in American society, especially among college students. "Binge" Drinking is defined for men as drinking five or more drinks in a row in the past two weeks, and for women as drinking four or more drinks in a row. "Frequent" binge drinking is defined as binge drinking three or more times in the past two weeks (Harvard School of Public Health, 1993). Binging is associated with higher risks of health problems, thus, binge drinking is the number one public health hazard for the more than six million full-time college students in America (Wechsler, 1995).
How frequent is binge drinking? (Harvard School of Public Health, 1993)
Stereotype of the college binge drinker (Wechsler, 1995)
Consequences of binge drinking
Long term binge drinking consequences (Rehring, 1997)
Conclusion
Binge drinking is a large problem with very serious consequences. It affects adolescent development, especially academic performance. If men and women begin binge drinking during adolescence and continue this behavior over a lifetime it will cause serious health consequences. This is why adolescents need to be educated about binge drinking and the its effects.
References
For Further Reading:
Binge Drinking http:// www.uhs.berkeley.edu/students/healthpromotion/binge.htm
Open Letter http://www.jointogether.org/jto/issues/binge/binge_facts.htm
Drinking: A Student's Guide http://www.glness.com/ndha/binge.html
Financial Burdens:
The consumption of alcohol is a great health concern to our society. Alcohol abuse is estimated to cost our economy over $100 billion annually (Holden 1987). This figure includes medical treatment for cirrhosis of the liver, osteoporosis, ulcers, heart disease, nervous system damage, and certain types of cancer such as breast cancer. It includes the insurance and medical costs incurred by automobile accidents resulting from drinking and driving. Each year approximately 3,300 adolescents are killed in alcohol-related car accidents and overall, 49 percent of fatal crashes involving teenagers also involve alcohol (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1987). The total costs annually also include alcohol treatment necessary to help people control their addiction. It includes the enormous cost of labor that is lost when heavy drinkers are unable to come in to work.
Family Involvement:
The cost issues relating to adolescent alcoholism not only relate to financial burdens on society but also the cost to the family of children with the addiction. Here are several suggestions as presented by (Johnson, Carroll, 1987) which might help reduce the cost of alcoholism on the family.
1) Create a home environment of warmth, acceptance, and concern about a young person's problems, an environment in which troubles can be discussed before they lead to greater difficulties. Having this kind of relationship with their parents can help teenagers develop the psychological resilience needed to cope with life's inevitable setbacks without turning to drugs or alcohol.
2)Know the early warning signs of teenage drug use. These include a reduced interest in school work and in extracurricular activities, arriving late at school and skipping classes, and the unexplained disappearance of liquor from the family liquor cabinet. The adolescent may drop old friends and start spending time with new ones who are never introduced to parents. The teenager may have mood changes, argues explosively with parents, and denies the use of drugs or alcohol. Frequently, drug abusers run into trouble with police, driving drunk, using false ID, or pilfering money.
3)Seek help immediately for a drug user. Across the country there are hospitals, clinics, groups, and programs designed to help teenagers with a drug or alcohol problem. A state department of mental health, a local hospital, or a drug abuse hotline can offer valuable advice.
Final Thought:
Often teenage drug abuse is more difficult to spot because it occurs only occasionally
and can be hidden from parents until tragedy occurs, often behind the wheel
of a car. Why teenagers continue to risk their lives in this way may have to
do with adolescent egocentrism, that is when adolescents first develop a sense
of their own uniqueness, they may get the mistaken impression that they are
so different from others they are not susceptible to the same fates. Many teenagers
therefore, take enormous risks, convinced that nothing terrible could possibly
happen to them. Intervention at a young age may curtail this behavior, however,
then and only then might the high cost issues either financial or family might
show change (Johnson, Carroll, 1987).
Holden, C. (1987). Alcoholism and the medical cost crunch.
Johnson, T. and Carroll, G. (1986, March 17). Tale of three addictions: A cheerleaders fall andrise. Newsweek Inc.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (1987). Fatal accident reporting system. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation.
Schemeck, H.M. (1983, September, 2). Alcoholism tests back disease idea. New York Times, A10.
Jessor, R., Jessor, S. (1977). Problem behavior and psycho social development: a longitudinal study of youth. New York. Academic Press.
Is marijuana a "gateway" drug?
Marijuana is an illicit drug and considered a "gateway" drug. This means that it's use leads to the use of more serious drugs such as LSD, cocaine, and heroine. There is much controversy about the claim that marijuana is a "gateway" drug because not all adolescents who use marijuana advance to harder drugs. On the one hand, the claim that marijuana causes use of harder drugs finds no support because more important factors could be the cause, such as, personality and social class (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995). On the other hand, support exists for marijuana as a "gateway" drug. Of high school seniors who use crack, only 10% used it before first trying marijuana (Kandel & Yamaguchi, 1993).
What percent of adolescents use marijuana?
Marijuana use is strongly related to age. Of thirteen and fourteen year-olds 6.2% used marijuana in the past year and 3.2% used it in the past month. Of fifteen and sixteen year-olds, 16.5% used it within the past year and 8.7% used it within the past month. And, of seventeen and eighteen year-olds, 23.9% used it in the past year and 13.8% in the past month (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995).
What causes marijuana use in adolescence?
Factors that place adolescents at risk for initiating marijuana use include (Dembo, Schmeidler, Williams, Wothke, 1992):
What are the effects of marijuana?
Physiological Effects (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995)
Behavioral Effects (Hanson & Venturelli, 1995)
Psychological Effects (Dembo et al, 1992)
Conclusions:
Marijuana use is common in adolescence and may even lead to use of more serious drugs. The causes of marijuana use in adolescence are influenced by many factors including family and peer relationships. Also, not only does marijuana have serious effects on an adolescent's body but it also effects their behavior and attitudes.
The use of drugs and alcohol is on the rise, especially among the teenage crowd.
A lot has been done in past years to deter the use of these substances, although
the rate of use continues to grow. By taking a look at the manner in which teens
respond to awareness programs we can develop more effective programs in the
future. Lets take a look at some styles that work and others that don't.
What works
Studies have shown that straight facts are most effective when dealing with teenagers. Teenagers are at a point in their lives where they are capable of making intelligent, educated decisions regarding their own well being. Giving them the facts and allowing them to make their own decision is very effective in drug prevention. This gives them a felling of responsibility in the decision making process. With this responsibility, they tend to approach the decision in a more mature manner (Hawkins, 1992).
A program called D.A.R.E. has also show good results. D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) is a proactive attempt to address substance use by teaching young people the skills necessary to recognize and resist pressure to experiment with different types of drugs (http://www.open.org/nfatc/index5.htm).
Another way to fight the war on teenage drug use is by administering treatment programs to drug offenders rather than mandatory minimum sentences. Treatment programs reduce more drug consumption and crime than either prison sentences or conventional law enforcement (http://www.open.org/nfatc/index5.htm).
What doesn't
Scare tactics, which try to scare the teen with bogus information, do not work. The majority of the time the teen will discover the info to be invalid and will associate all future info coming from such sources as also invalid. In doing this they will discredit valuable information that would otherwise be helpful to them in making the right decisions concerning drugs and alcohol.
"Just Say No" also has shown little effect on the war on drugs (Hawkins, 1992). Teaching kids to just say no does not equip them with the necessary skills to react to high-pressure, complicated situations.
With the constant rise of drug use in our communities it is important to educate our children about the dangers of drugs and to equip them with the skills to make the right decisions concerning drug and alcohol use.
References:
For additional information:
What are considered violent behaviors?
Laurence Steinberg defines violent crimes in his text Adolescence(fourth edition) as the following:
What is the prevelance of violent crimes among adolescents?
What are the long term effects of adolescent violence?
Early adolescent delinquency usually results in the following:
Later adolescent delinquency results in:
Based on these findings on the long term effects of delinquent behavior it is clear to see that the earlier these behaviors began the worse the implications may become in the future. This is why we need to start early and begin peventing such activities by providing youth with other alternatives and preventions.
Prevention and treatment of violent behaviors.
There is evidence that family-based interventions, such as parent training or family therapy, may be more successful than interventions that focus on the individual adolescent, but these programs tend to be extremely expensive and time consuming. - In order to lower the rate of chronic antisocial behavior, which is a precursor to violent crimes, we need mainly to prevent family disruption in early family relationships and to head off early academic problems, througha combination of family support and preschool intervention(Yoshikawa, 1994).
For More Information . . .
There has been a definite increase in the amount of crimes commited by youth;
for more information on this topic I recommend browsing this web site: http://www.subcom/'shadp/Directories/vyg.htm/
What is a gang?
According to Saul Scheidlinger, PhD; a gang is defined as "an intimate social gathering characterized by a high degree of close personal contact among members, who share common values or standards of behavior. Largely an urban phenomenon, the gang is a subculture whose interests and attitudes are typically different from and sometimes in direct conflict with those of the larger society"
There are six elements to all gangs:
Gangs typically are made up of adolescents with similar ethnic backgrounds, age ranges from 9-24, lower socioeconomic status, predominately males, and are located in urban areas.
What are the specific types of gangs?
There are three typical gang classifications:
What types of crime do gangs commit?(Huff,1989)
Important statistics regarding gangs(Parks,1995)
In 1995 there were an estimated 1439 gangs in the United States. The number of members in those gangs totals over 1.5 million. Gangs are in approximately 2100 U.S. cities with populations greater than 10,000. Approximately one fifth of all adolescent boys, in these cities, belong to a gang. It is important to note that gang activity differs in each state, therefore making it difficult to report statistics on specific gang activity. For information regarding a specific state, one should consult a local library for specific government documents regarding juvenile crime rates.
For additional information:
How do peers influence delinquency?
The number of delinquents within the respondent's immediate circle of friends plays a large part in determining if the respondent will become involved in delinquent behavior as well. As Warr(1993) suggests, recent, rather than early, friends have the greatest effect on delinquecy. Adolescents who acquire delinquent friends thereby lock themselves out of future friendships with "straight" kids through the stigma of delinquency(Warr, 1993).
How do schools influence delinquency?
Classroom conduct problems and poor academic performance are also predictors of later delinquency. The tasks presented by the school have long been recognized as a major developmental hurdle for children and youth. Many writers have suggested that the experience of school failure is an important determinant of delinquent behavior. According to Clements(1988) the school setting is also the major site for acquiring behavioral, social, and academic competencies that serve to enhance adjustment and stabilize stressful life events.
Prevention and Treatment
A number of generalizations have been made about delinquency prevention and intervention. Delinquency is a symptom of failed integration into mainstream community structures(Clements, 1988). There are several points of focus that help to alleviate this symptom. They are diversion and neighborhood programs, family-based interventions, school-based interventions and assesment strategies(Clements, 1988). In review of successful school-based behavioral treatment programs Clements(1988) desribed a few common components. The treatment focus is designed to enhance attendance and performance. One well documented program included contingency contracting, point redemption, and a reinforcement room(Clements). Another well known school-based intervention is the PREP program. It includes programmed instruction in academic areas and social skills training. Parents were instructed in child-management skills and encouraged to become involved in school affairs(Clements).
Many youths find it difficult to cope with adolescent period of development.
Thousands of them turn to drugs, alcohol or teen-age marriages. This may be
the child's means of escape from society and a reach for a sense of individual
worth and value.
What is the norm during adolescence?
It is normal for the family of an adolescent to be going through a time of turmoil and stress. Other parents are feeling anxiety about their child also, check out this page: http://www.familyeducation.com/. The pessimism about this time in a child's life may be due to the changes that are taking place and not so much the onset of adolescents. Parents must not think that their child will automatically become a delinquent when he or she reaches a certain age. The facts are that approximately three-fourths of families enjoy pleasant relations during adolescent years (Steinberg, 1990). The other one-forth of families who report unhappy relations usually have experienced prior family problems.
Is delinquency caused by family factors?
Youths who are arrested for delinquent behaviors tend to come from families with deficient childrearing or socialization practices, poor adolescent-parent relationships and little family cohesiveness (Atwater, 1988). Some of the prevalent things found in households with delinquent children are lack of house rules, lack of parental supervision, lack of a rewards and punishment system (Atwater, 1988). One of the single best predictors of delinquency is the lack of affectional ties between adolescents and their parents. Family life affects the child but the child also affect the family, delinquency effects are not mono-directional.
How families and their parenting style affect the delinquency of a child.
Adolescents thrive developmentally when the family environment is characterized by warm relationships in which they are permitted to express their opinions and become individuals (Steinberg, 1990). The type of parenting style that best fits this description is authoritative parenting. Parents with an authoritative style have children with better social skills and higher psychological health. Authoritative parents put high demand on their children but also have high support which makes for the optimal parenting (Steinberg, 1990). The other type of parenting such as authoritarian, indulgent and neglected present problems to the adolescent. They provide and unhealthy balance of demands and responsiveness which contributes to the delinquent behavior of their child.
To Find Out More . . .
If you are reading this page you are already taking part in educational prevention.
Here are some other links that may be useful to you:
What is mentoring?
Many of today's adolescents need to be mentored. Precisely what is mentoring? What is involved and what are the fruits that can be expected? The insights of two prominent workers in the field are important for our understanding of the concept of mentoring.
Mentoring is sharing who you are, it is guiding a young person; it may be to befriend someone different from you. It is living out in the relationship: I care, I will be here for you, we are friends, you are special to me. Freedman remarked that it would be ideal if our adolescents' lives "had environments that were mentor-rich environments," but since this is often not the case we need to place mentors so that needy adolescents can have a caring adult in their lives. (Freedman 1993).
Lefkowitz in his book Tough Change (1986) focused on the one-on-one caring relationship between a concerned adult and an adolescent in need of help and support. He found in his work with young people that "Again and again the same pattern was repeated. The kid who managed to climb out of the morass of poverty and social pathology was the kid who found somebody, usually in school, sometimes outside, who helped them invent a promising future. In practical terms, the presence of the understanding, concerned, yet demanding mentor transforms the meaning and quality of education."
It is clear from Freedman, Lefkowitz and others that mentoring in simple terms is a relationship between a faithful adult counselor-friend and the young person who for many reasons stands virtually 'alone' in the world and is in need of the special, personal support that faithful person can bring to his/her life.
Why did mentoring groups start? Can they help today as they did in the past? Adolescents in the past did not have easy lives, and in fact at the turn of the century in the United States many of our youth led very difficult, lonely lives. Many were homeless and as a result ended up in the courts. Unfortunately the same is true today. Different reasons, same scenario. The early mentor programs were started to meet the needs of young people then. Big-Brother and/or Big-Sister programs early on were developed to help them have a meaningful relationship with an adult. A Big-Brother program was founded in New York City to meet the needs of boys brought to Children's Court for offenses that could send them to a non-rehabilitating reformatory. One boy avoided that fate when Ernest K. Coulter, founder of the New York City Big-Brother organization, offered to find him a mentor. Coulter approached the Mens Club of a church in New York and stated: "There is only one possible way to save that youngster and that is to have some earnest, true man volunteer to be his big brother, to look after him, help him to do right, make the little chap feel that there is at least one human being in this great city who takes a personal interest in him; who cares whether he lives or dies." (Brieswinger, 1985). Mentoring an adolescent in 1997 is very much the same.
Help where help is needed.
Mentoring is not confined to addressing just one problem. It is an across-the-board resolve to help the adolescent in any area where help is needed: problems at home, problems stemming from not having a home, problems at school, with peers, on a part-time 'ob, in short, with whatever troubles the adolescent may be having, be they practical, emotional, physical, psychological, or even spiritual. In all of these areas, the mentor will be there to advise, assist, to care, and to be a warm and loving role-model in what is for the adolescent a cold, unyielding, sometimes ununderstandable outside world.
No adolescent who needs to be in a mentoring relationship should have to be without one.
A MENTORING RELATIONSHIP WITH AN ADOLESCENT...
BUILDS BRIDGES...
LENDS A HAND...
SHARES LOVE.
For additional information:
References:
To Read Further . . . About Delinquency
About The Juvenile Justice System
About Substance Use
About Risk Factors
About Violence
About Peer and School Influences
About Family Influences
About Gangs
This site was produced by students taking HDFS 433: The Transition to Adulthood and HDFS 239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback can be sent to the individual authors or to Nancy Darling (darling@bard.edu).
Last updated 8/12/03.