Puberty is defined as "the biological changes of adolescence" (Steinberg, 1996). Biological developments change boys and girls from physical immaturity to biological maturity (Cole & Cole, 1993).
Hormones: The endocrine system produces, moves, and adjusts levels of hormones in the body. Hormones are very specific substances secreted by one or more endocrine glands. Glands stimulate certain parts of the body to respond in special ways. The hypothalamus responds to the levels of sex hormones within an adolescent's body. When the endocrine system levels of estrogen and androgen fall, the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release sex hormones through the gonads. The gonads are the ovaries in females and testes in males (Steinberg, 1996). The sex hormones stimulate the females' ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone (Katchadourian, 1977 in Cole & Cole, 1993). This stimulation triggers the release of mature ova from the ovaries to allow for future reproduction (Cole & Cole in Katchadourian, 1977). These hormones also stimulate the testes and adrenal glands among males (Cole & Cole in Katchadourian, 1977). This stimulation produces the hormone testosterone for producing sperm (Cole & Cole in Katchadourian, 1977). Puberty begins when the hypothalamus is signaled and the pituitary gland is activated (Cole & Cole, 1993).
There are five physical occurrences from puberty (Marshall, 1978 in Steinberg, 1996).
The growth spurt usually occurs in girls about two years before boys. The growth spurt triggers the legs to grow, followed by the body's trunk, and ending in the shoulders and chest (Cole &Cole, 1993). Bones become harder and more dense, while muscle and fat contribute to an adolescent increase in weight (Steinberg, 1996).
Body composition and circulatory and respiratory change:
Sexual development involves enlargement, maturity, and the reproduction of the primary sex organs . The male testes produce sperm cells and the prostate gland produces semen. Males are able to ejaculate the semen, which contains the sperm. The female ovaries release the mature ova into the fallopian tubes. Menstruation occurs if conception does not (Cole & Cole, 1993).
As the primary sex organs mature, the secondary sex characteristics distinguish males from females (Cole & Cole, 1993).
***The following chart shows the variations of physical changes at puberty (Goldstein, 1976 in Steinberg 1996).
| GIRLS | BOYS | ||
| Characteristics | Age of Occurrence | Characteristics | Age of Occurrence |
| Breasts grow | 8-13 years | Testes and scrotal sac grow | 10-13 years |
| Pubic hair develops | 8-14 years | Pubic hair develops | 10-15 years |
| The body grows | 9 ½-14 ½ years | The body grows | 10 ½-16 years |
| Menarche occurs | 10-16 ½ years | Penis growth | 11-14 ½ |
| Underarm hair grows | Around 2 years after pubic hair | Voice changes (Larynx grows) | Around the same time as the penis |
| Oil/Sweat glands | Around time of underarm hair | Underarm and facial hair | Around 2 years after pubic hair |
| Oil/Sweat glands | Around time of underarm hair | ||
What are Hormones?
Hormones are a specific organic product of living cells that, transported by body fluids, produces a specific effect on the activity of cells remote from its point of origin (Webster's, 1997). Because receptors in our cells respond to some hormones and not to others, the action of each hormone is unique. Hormones influence organs throughout the body, and regulate growth and many other aspects of normal body function. Estrogens are thought of as female hormones and androgens are thought of as male hormones, both types are present in each sex, but in different amounts. Hormonal activation may influence excitability, arousal, or emotionality. These in turn may influence how individuals behave.
Males and Hormones:
Boy's testes release large quantities of the androgen testosterone, which leads to muscle growth, body and facial hair, and other male sex characteristics. Testosterone also contributes to gains in body size. The production of hormones is associated with emotionality, specifically aggressive behavior in boys. These effects may be greatest when the endocrine system is being turned on.
Females and Hormones:
Estrogen released by the girls ovaries cause the breasts, uterus, and vagina to mature and the body to take feminine proportions. In addition, estrogens contribute to regulation of the menstrual cycle. Girls also are affected by androgens secreted by the kidneys for their growth spurt, underarm and pubic hair. The production of hormones is associated with emotionality, both depressive and aggressive affects in girls. These effects may be greatest when the endocrine system is being turned on.
How can Hormones affect adolescents and his or her transition into adulthood?
For boys, puberty is believed to expand role possibilities into the realm of work and achievement. Girl's roles are believed to be confined. "Boys are classified as Doing and girls are classified as Being" (Buchanan, 1992). Girls may be more vulnerable to problems with autonomy, a sense of oneself as a separate self-governing individual (Berk, G-2), than boys may. Girls have been characterized to be more emotionally focused and less individualized the identity status of self-chosen values and goals (Berk, G-8), from their mothers than boys do. Girls are more interpersonal, intimate, and relationally focused. Girls tend to be more intimate while boys may develop intimacy problems, or become more salient at Puberty. Emotional health, depression, conduct disorders, and eating disorders are all linked to gender.
A common belief is that pubertal change has something to do with adolescent moodiness and the desire for greater physical and emotional separation from parents. "Indeed, higher hormone levels are related to greater moodiness, in the form of anger and irritability for males and anger and depression for females, between nine and fourteen years of age (Berk, 1997)(Brooks-Gunn & Warren, 1989; Noltelmann et. Al., 1990). Findings indicate that "low points of mood swings are associated with time spent with friends and in self chosen leisure and hobby activities (Berk, 1997). "While high points tended to occur in adult structured settings- class, job, school halls, school libraries, and church (Berk, 1997). These finding suggest that situational factors may act in concert with hormonal influences to affect teenagers' moodiness.
Biological as well as social plays an important role. Early maturation in boys appears at more of an advantage in many aspects of emotional and social functioning. "Adolescent boys are viewed as relaxed, independent, self-confident, and physically attractive" (Mei Fang, 1996). "Late maturing boys are viewed as anxious, overly talkative, attention seeking in behavior" (Mei Fang, 1996). Among girls the impact of early versus late maturation is just the opposite. "Early maturers are below average in popularity, appeared withdrawn and lacking in self-confidence, and held fewer positions of leadership roles (Mei Fang, 1996). Late maturers are regarded as physically attractive, lively, sociable and leaders in school: (Mei Fang, 1996).
In conclusion, it is safe to say that hormones and their effects on adolescents vary with age and gender. Not every transition into adulthood will be easy, but to enhance and help adolescents cope with all the chemical changes taking place, one needs to be supportive, understanding, and patient to all trial and errors.
References:
Menarche, or the first menstrual period, is a significant event in the life cycle of an adolescent. Girls who mature early are affected differently than those maturing at different times. Overall, a girl's reaction to menarche is a combination of biological, psychological and social factors. In fact, peer relationship, self-esteem, and the way that she feels about being a woman determine how the adolescent adapts to the changes (Golub, 1992).
The onset of menstruation brings with it new expectations and rights. It is also a critical time in the adolescent girl's reorganization of her body image and sexual identity (Moffitt, Caspi, Silva, & Belsky, 1992). Many girls are ambivalent about their new bodies and are unsure about the changes and growth that they are experiencing.
Menarche occurs at different times for individual adolescent girls. There are both early and late maturing girls. Early developing girls seem to fare worse at puberty (Golub, 1992). They suffer because they look older and are involved in more sexual relationships that their non-maturing peers (Golub, 1992). This often results in teasing which in turn leads to self-consciousness. Developing on time and being in-sync with peers seems to be best for adolescent girls (Golub, 1992).
Physical changes
Menarche is preceded by characteristic body changes. Breast development usually occurs first, though not in all cases. There is a slight enlargement of the areola, the area around the nipple, and elevation of the breast as a small mound, called breast buds. This occurs, on average, at 10.5 years. The completion of mature breasts is approximately 4.5 years after the onset of growth (Brooks-Gunn & Elliott, 1992).
There is also an increase in body hair. At about the age of eleven, pubic hair begins to develop. Over time, pubic hair becomes longer, darker, coarser, and curlier (Brooks Gunn et al, 1992). Underarm hair usually begins to grow about two years after the onset of pubic hair.
Other noticeable physical changes include a growth spurt and weight gain. A female's growth spurt begins around 9.6 years of age (Brooks-Gunn et al, 1992). Body proportions also change with the hips becoming fuller. Sweat glands become more active resulting in body odor and an increase in the secretion of skin oil. Finally, paralleling these external changes are those occurring internally, including growth of the uterus and vagina (Golub, 1992).
Social changes
The transition to "womanhood" plays a crucial part in a young girl's social life. Relationships with both parents and peers are affected. Girls seek to gain greater autonomy from their parents, and often, conflict increases and intensifies. However, it is only temporary. Adolescents act older and want to be treated that way by adults. Thus, they engage in adult behaviors such as smoking and drinking. They also begin to wear make-up, shave their legs, and date.
Girls who begin to menstruate and mature earlier look older than their peers do. They look for, and are sought by older adolescents as friends. Thus, they often are the focus of and engage in relationships with older males. These girls act older because of perceived expectations of others and may engage in sexual, as well as deviant activities.
However, these early maturing females may have trouble with their changes. Early maturers may not be as well prepared for pubertal change (Brooks-Gunn et al, 1992). Many times girls are disturbed with their bodies. They are growing in ways that others are not and may in turn be excluded and ridiculed by their peers. It is easy for these girls to feel self-conscious and embarrassed about their periods.
Psychological Changes
The awareness of sexual differentiation between males and females does increase at menarche. Gender roles often become intensified. Menarche is a time of mixed feelings. Girls are both anxious and scared, and happy and embarrassed. However, changes in body image are common and girls expect to act, and be treated differently after menstruation.
In addition, girls are believed to be more emotionally focused and less individuated from their mothers (Brooks-Gunn et al, 1992). Many girls talk with their mothers about pubertal change. Also, postmenarcheal girls speak and act more interpersonally, intimately, and relationally focused (Brooks-Gunn et al, 1992).
References:
Both males' and females' bodies go through tremendous changes in puberty. However, people tend to know much more about the physiological changes that females experience during this adjustment period. Parents and educators often discuss these physiological changes with females (typically menarche), but neglect to recognize the importance of talking to boys about the changes that their bodies will under go. This problem needs to be recognized and addressed. Both males and females alike should be well informed and prepared for the physical changes they will experience in puberty. The following information was collected to provide information on the physiological development of adolescent boys, and to help better educate people on this topic.
CHANGES IN THE GENITALS AND SPERMARCHE
Sequence of events
SPERMARCHE
So what IS Spermarche?
Spermarche is comparable to menarche in girls (Atwater, 1992; Kulin et al., 1989). Spermatozoa are the male sex cells that carry genetic material and allow the male to reproduce (Nielsen et al., 1986; PDR Medical Dictionary, 1995). Spermarche is specifically the male's first ejaculation (Gaddis & Brooks-Gunn, 1985). This first ejaculation usually occurs as a result of masturbation or in a nocturnal emission that is commonly accompanied by an erotic dream (Atwater, 1992; Kim, Smith, & Palermiti, 1997).
Boys have different reactions to spermarche. Most of the time they report it to be an exciting or positive experience. Although, some boys also say the experience of spermarche was scary, embarrassing, or surprising (Gaddis & Brooks-Gunn, 1985). Boys' feelings about their first ejaculation frequently are determined by how much they knew about the experience prior to the occurrence (Gaddis & Brooks-Gunn, 1985). If boys are informed about spermarche, they rarely obtain their information from an adult or health class. They usually learn about it through other sources like magazines (Gaddis & Brooks-Gunn, 1985).
One known difference about spermarche cross culturally appears to be the level of discretion that follows the experience. For example, one study that focused on adolescent boys from Nigeria found that many more boys (108) had told someone about their experience than had not (68) (Adegoke, 1992). On the other hand, another study that focused on white boys from middle to upper-middle class families found the reverse to be true. Sixty-four percent of the boys in this study had not reported their experience to anyone, and none of the boys in the study had talked to their friends about it (Gaddis & Brooks-Gunn, 1985).
Earlier spermarche also appears to be associated with earlier involvement in sexual activity as well. In one study boys that experienced spermarche early were more likely to be involved in the following (Kim, Smith, & Palermiti, 1997):
Spermarche occurs before the peak growth spurt when secondary sexual characteristics are at an early stage of development (Nielsen et al., 1986). Because of social and ethical reasons (referring to the request of semen samples), it has been difficult for researchers to determine the age in which spermarche occurs. Many researchers rely on an examination of male adolescents' urine samples to determine when sperm first appear in it. This procedure is used in research, and is called spermaturia (Kulin et al., 1989). It has been found that at first boys are relatively sterile because their semen contains very few mobile sperm. It is estimated that it takes between one and three years before his ejaculate has sufficient sperm to be capable of reproduction (Atwater, 1992).
CHANGE IN VOICE--GROWTH OF LARYNX
The male's voice becomes deeper with the growth of the larynx. This is a gradual process, and does not occur until very late adolescence (Steinberg, 1999).
BODY AND FACIAL HAIR GROWTH
Facial Hair
Body Hair
CHANGES IN THE SKIN
BREAST CHANGES
References
Cross Cultural Differences
Margaret A. Robinson
Awareness of Puberty
Research on cultural differences of puberty and its development among different ethnic groups has been limited. It is found that some cultures practice different rites of passage during pubertal changes or onset of menstruation. Other cultures, for instance those in the U.S., puberty remains latent and the connection is certainly not stressed with rituals (Feldman, 1990).
In the U.S., fathers report being uneasy about discussion of the subject. Mothers have some shame and uneasiness about their menarches, but mothers do discuss puberty with their daughters (Feldman).
The uncomfortable parental feelings may be the reason some parents favor sex education in schools. Sexual uneasiness may be as much a part of the American as the European experience (Feldman). Educational materials reflect society's ambivalence towards puberty. In Western Europe education pamphlets are more graphically informative than in the U.S. (Feldman).
Environmental Effects
The timing of physical changes of puberty depends on interactions between genetic and environmental factors. Factors such as nutrition, social attitudes, family size, and exercise can influence pubertal processes. If nutrition is adequate (with sufficient protein intake), maturation timing seems to be the same across ethnic groups (Cole,1993). Girls in higher socioeconomic(SES) class begin menstruation earlier than girls from low SES (Frisch,1978). Researchers believe that higher protein intake is primarily responsible. In industrial countries the age when menstruation begins, as well as male puberty, has been declining among all social groups (Cole,1993).
Rituals of Puberty
Puberty may be viewed as a cultural event that is recognized with celebration or rituals.
In the Liberian Mano tribe and several other West African tribes, boys in late puberty undergo a ceremonial death and then "spirited away" by older men to an isolated grove deep in the forest. They are taught farming and how to earn a living. After several years in hiding they come back with a new name and identity (Harley,1941).
For girls in the Arapesh tribe of New Guinea, menstrual huts are built where girls in early puberty stay for six days, without food or water. She is rubbed with stinging nettles and told to roll a nettle leaf in a tube, then thrust it into her vulva. This is to ensure large and strong breasts.
For the Australian Aboriginal tribe there is a focus on the concept of "death of childhood" and "rebirth into adulthood." The adolescents are given tattoos in late puberty as preparation for acceptance as an adult. Adults are physically marked with tattoos, therefore seen differently than the children (Mahdi,1987).
Chinese: In China by the time a girl reaches puberty she accepts the position of being inferior. This stigma of lowly statue was shown in the past by the infamous bound feet or "lotus feet" (Fried,1980). But foot binding is now completely gone. In China there is more of a regression of sexual drive than in the U.S. (Fried).
Native American: A Navajo boy in late puberty takes a solo journey into the mountains to attain his manhood. He is to find his guardian spirit living alone for four days and nights without food and water. He returns to the tribe, must pass some tests, or simply go back to the forest again. This process may take three years (Mahdi).
United States: In U.S. there are no celebrated rituals at the time of pubertal processes. The Bar Mitzvah and Confirmation may carry some ritual element, but are available only to those families whose religious beliefs make it possible for them. In the U.S. because of the mixed cultures, or blending of ethnic groups in mixed marriages, there are no significant celebrations or rites of passage recognized for adolescents.
This site was produced by students taking HDFS 433: The Transition to Adulthood and HDFS 239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback can be sent to the individual authors or to Nancy Darling (darling@bard.edu).
Last updated 4/16/01.