Adolescence:
Change and ContinuityAdolescence:
Change and Continuity
Myth of athletic benefits:
Many myths surround high school athletics especially in regard to its relationship with academic success. One of the most pervasive myths in our society is that participation in sports has widespread scholastic benefits. Subscribers to this idea are likely to maintain the beliefs that students learn motivation and determination through sports that can be transferred to other academic goals. Athletes also have greater opportunities to learn and practice time management strategies to balance both sports and school. In this view, athletics is seen as an open door to a college education; a way to finance the high costs through athletic scholarships. Believers argue that athletes receive the same, or higher, grades than non-athletes. One reason they cite is that students who participate in sports are motivated to achieve in the classroom in order remain eligible to play. The increased self-esteem experienced as a result of athletic affiliation is also likely to enhance students' abilities in the classroom as well, (Miracle and Rees, 1994).
Opposition to the myth:
This stance, however, is met with much pessimism. Skeptics counter the above arguments with the image of the "dumb jock" who is unequipped to achieve scholastic success. They point to the instances of athletes who earn grades well below average, and who just barely make the minimum required grade point average. In this view, student athletes are able to pass through school because of the easier courses that they take, the extra help that they receive and the leniency with which they are graded. It appears that those who participate in sports have less time for school work and miss more classes due to athletic events. It is also assumed that sports distract from academics in general.
Link to educational aspiration:
It is important to note that these are all assumptions made by researchers and the public alike in answer to the question "does athletic achievement lead to academic success?". However, research has resulted in the consistent finding that participation in athletics increases students' educational aspirations. The expectations of acquiring a college degree are increased as a result of athletics, especially for those students who would otherwise not view it as possible. A 1989 study shows that black males from an urban high school were four times more likely to work towards a bachelors degree than their non-athletic counterparts. This increase in educational aspirations has been attributed to two major theories, (Miracle and Rees, 1994):
Although the skeptics would not deny the fact that athletics fosters high scholastic aspirations, they do question the effects of sports on higher education. They argue that by opening the collegiate doors to those students' who may not possess the necessary intellectual capital, athletics may be setting students up for eventual failure, (Miracle and Rees, 1994). The already mentioned belief that sports hinders the learning process makes it easy to see how the same students who benefit from the accessibility of a college education due to athletics can be just as easily hurt by it.
Conclusions:
There is nothing in athletic experience that has been found to lead to inevitable positive or negative outcomes for all students. There are obviously individual differences in all athletes that must also be accounted for. Little evidence supports the theory that sports teach skills necessary for academic success, nor does it support the claim that sports detract student athletes from academic pursuits. Athletics do provide students with opportunities for higher educational attainment but it is up to the individual athlete to succeed. Studies show that we must look at athletics for both points of view and be both believers and skeptics of the myth at once.
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What are motivational factors?
The motivational process emphasizes that the beliefs people hold about their intelligence orient them toward pursing certain goals, and that these goals shape their thoughts, feelings and behaviors in achievement settings that pose challenges or obstacles. (Elliot, 1993, p. 310-311)
Introduction
In the past twenty years there has been an increase in athletic participation. Although participation has increased among both males and females, the increase for females has been especially marked. In 1969, only 16,000 females were involved in college sports, but by the 1980's, this number had increase to 2.5 million.
What Are The Differences Between Men and Women?
Recent research has found information regarding differences in motivation, personal commitment, and parental role participation in sports.
Differences in motivation;
Females' experience and personal commitment was greater than males' in regards to feminine activities (gymnastics or field hockey), whereas males' was greater than females' masculine activities (boxing or baseball) (Matteo, 1986).
Differences in parental role involvement
Parental role models are more crucial for the sports involvement of females than for males (Gregson & Colley, 1986).
Why Might There Be A Difference?
An interesting point that all of the articles expressed a view on is the fact that society perceives females and males differently. One general notion is that society simply does not train women to achieve, that such aggressive action does not fit the female self-image, and also that females are socialized into being less competitive and less motivated in sports (Kidd & Woodman, 1991). Especially for males, children restrict their choices to sex-typed activities. (Matteo, 1986). In sum these researchers have found that motivation, personal commitment , and parent role involvement are different for males and females.
What is a therapeutic wilderness program?
The outdoor therapeutic program offers a unique combination of traditional psychiatric/psychological treatments along with experiential/adventure based outdoor services and activities. This program is designed to treat troubled adolescents that have common diagnoses such as: Bipolar Disorder, Conduct Disorder, Major Depression, Adjustment Disorder, Personality Disorder, and Attention Deficit Disorder. Within this program residents receive on-site private academic schooling, along with Intensive Group Counseling and Individual and Family counseling,which is based on the Cognitive Behavioral Model. Everything from recreational and art activities to, social and life skills are offered in these facilities. They aim to teach honor, respect, teamwork, responsibility, accountability, and honesty(Kershner,1996).
How is the program enacted?
Programs differ according to the stylistic approach it employs. The Three Springs Therapeutic Program uses what they call, the "Medicine Wheel." The wheel is a symbol of wholeness and unity among all races. It assigns the four aspects of human nature to the directions of the wheel, (North, South, East, and West). A balance must be achieved among the emotional, physical, mental, and spiritual parts of life. To help gain a better understanding of this abstract concept, the program conceptualizes these directions according to different stages. Once the adolescents enter the program and completes the expectations set out by the program (ex. fulfill daily responsibilities, learn group standards, ect.) they choose a stone from a creek. The stone signifies negative behaviors and circumstances which brought them to the program. There also given a red bead. This is significant of the acceptance of all races. The journey then begins (Kershner, 1996).
How does one advance to the next stage?
The journey in the Three Springs program composes of seven stages, each signifying a new direction of the wheel.The journey begins in the south, the direction of the sun and place of emotions, and ends in the center of the full circle, graduation. At each stage an adolescent is given privileges and expectations. Here they write out a list of goals to be accomplished. Stage one, for example, is the Buddy System. When a resident is first starting out they must remain supervised by a "Buddy". A "Buddy" is a more experienced advanced group member. A distance of 10ft must always be kept between both of them. They cannot make fires, cook, or use tools until the next stage. Once these objectives are met, there is a ceremony, and one moves on to the next stage, which is called New Group Member. Now the resident is eligible to use tools, go on a town visit, have unaccompanied access to all of their campsite, etc. The stages then continue through, Senior Group Member, and then to Graduation. Graduation draws the journey of the medicine wheel to a close. The close of this journey is really the beginning of a new one which will last the rest of ones life.
What is the job of personnel?
The counselor is the most important person in the life of a child at camp, and tries to keep this relationship as meaningful and consistent as possible, (Loughmiller, 1965). The counselor helps the child at almost any level, and uses special personnel when help cannot be given through the counselor or the group. The counselor stands at all times as a helper and plays a supporting role in assisting the group to establish and achieve its own goals and purposes, (Loughmiller, 1965). The aim is to allow each camper to reach their greatest potential growth.
In conclusion, the journey is a tough rode. It makes one confront their past and think about the future. It is not a path that is traveled alone. The teachings and the counselors provide a mission for the child.Courage has been born, confidence has been obtained, and trust has been achieved.
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Musical achievement is related to self-concept
Self-concept and musical achievement are strongly related and play a direct role in classroom behavior and motivation to participate in musical activities (Reynolds, 1992). Self-concept develops as we come in contact with other people and they influence what we think about ourselves. Musical self-concept therefore, continues to develop and change with each new musical experience we encounter. (Greenberg 1970). Consequently, as students understand their own abilities and limitations, self-concept can have a positive or negative affect on music achievement.
What differences exist in perceived adolescent musical achievement?
The way adolescent music students perceive their own self-concept will have an impact on their levels of achievement. Greenburg (1970) states that students with poor self-concept believe they have little ability to succeed in music. Underachievement in music is commonly thought to result from negative experiences in early childhood which scar the musical self-concept (Greenburg, 1970). In contrast, those students with a high self-concept relate their successes to positive musical task performances (Asmus, 1986). They believe their abilities are the cause of their achievement; thus they are more highly motivated and driven to succeed (Reynolds, 1992).
What determines musical achievement?
Based on a study by Asmus (1986), of music education students in grades four through twelve, achievement is based on either effort (work) or ability (talent). It appears children (fourth and fifth graders) associate musical achievement with effort. They believe achievement is due to persistence at a musical task. In early adolescence (sixth and seventh grade) the opinion shifts. Adolescents define achievement in music as individual ability and not as a result of effort. Individuals must be talented or musically gifted to achieve. In the study, the association between ability and achievement in music reaches its peak in the twelfth grade of school.
Why is musical achievement important?
In a study done by Hyton (cited in Reynolds, 1992) high school music students said that singing in a choir helped them to know themselves better, feel more at ease and to be at peace with themselves. In a different study by Nolin and VanderArk (cited in Reynolds, 1992) students in a ninth-grade band and choir scored significantly higher on self-esteem tests than did their non-music peers. Musical achievement is important because it enhances an adolescents self-concept. Therefore, positive musical self concept may have a direct impact on an adolescents choice to participate and flourish with in a musical setting (Reynolds, 1992).
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Current Statistics (McCombs & Forehand, 1989)
Academic Achievement Following Parental Divorce
Over the past few years, divorce has been identified as a highly stressful event in the lives of adolescents (McCombs & Forehand, 1989). Although academic achievement examines only one level of functioning, adolescent academic performance is the area most sensitive to family stress and is a good measure of overall functioning (Neighbors, Forehand, & Armistead, 1992). It has been found that children of two-parent homes exhibit higher mental aptitude, academic achievement and better school grades than those children from one-parent families (Neighbors et al., 1992) (Call, Beer, & Beer, 1994). Since about 9.5% of all households are mother headed homes, many children spend time alone and without much parental influence with regard to school performance (Gabardi & Rosen, 1991).
Buffers That Can Positively Affect Academic Achievement for Adolescents
In light of the information on divorce and the negative impact upon academic achievement among adolescents, it is important to look at factors which can lessen these negative outcomes for children. It is interesting to note that children of divorced homes with high grade point averages have mothers with a lower level of depression, a higher educational level, less conflict with their ex-spouse, and less intense levels of conflict between mother and child than those children with lower grade point averages. Family factors, especially those related to the mother can enhance academic success (McCombs and Forehand, 1989). Thus, school performance following divorce is not uniform for all adolescents. Two more buffers against academic decline after divorce are extended school days and after school programs. Adolescents in schools which have these programs have much higher scholastic achievement scores. Children that participate in these programs spend more time with peers, have more adult supervision and a better outlook on their academic potential (Peres and Pasternack, 1991). This suggests that certain school programs may be able to reduce gaps between children raised in divorced and intact families.
Conclusion
It is evident through the current statistics that divorce is, and will continue to be, a prevalent problem in American society. While this change in family structure can have negative implications for adolescents and academic achievement, it is important to note that family and school factors may buffer some of these outcomes. Understanding these circumstances may aid parents and schools in helping children through this life transition.
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This site was produced by students taking HDFS 433: The Transition to Adulthood and HDFS 239: Adolescent Development at the Pennsylvania State University. Feedback can be sent to the individual authors or to Nancy Darling (darling@bard.edu).
Last updated 4/16/01.